AGRICOETURAL 

THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

RIVERSIDE 


BIO-AGRICULTURAL  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
RIVERSIDE,  CALIFORNIA  92502 


SKETCH  OF 

THE  EVOLUTION  OF  OUR 
NATIVE  FRUITS 


: 


SKETCH  OF 

THE  EVOLUTION  OF  OUR 
NATIVE  FRUITS 


It  would  be  curious  to  speculate  as  to  what  our  pomology  would 
have  been  if  the  civilization  from  which  it,  and  we  ourselves,  have 
sprung,  had  had  its  birthplace  along  the  southern  shores  of  our  great 
lakes,  the  northern  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  intervening  Mis- 
sissippi, instead  of  the  Levant,  Mesopotamia  and  the  Nile,  and  our 
old  world  had  been  open  to  us  as  a  new  world  less  than  four 
hundred  years  ago.— Asa  Gray. 


BY 

L.    H.    BAILEY 


SECOND  EDITION 


THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

LONDON:    MACMILLAN  &   CO..  LTD. 

1906 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1898 
BY   L.  H.  BAILEY 


Set  up  and  eleetrotyped,  October,  1808 
Reprinted  June,  1906 


j^Ieauant 


J.  He 
HAR 


IN   MEMORY  OF 

grnrst 


-DEAR   FRIEND  AND 
ASSOCIATE- 

•J  jilare  this  humble  tribute 


PREFACE 

THREE  motives  run  through  this  book :  An  at- 
tempt to  expound  the  progress  of  evolution  in  objects 
which  are  familiar  and  which  have  not  yet  been 
greatly  modified  by  man  ;  an  effort  to  make  a  simple 
historical  record  from  unexplored  fields  ;  a  desire  to 
suggest  the  treasures  of  experience  and  narrative 
which  are  a  part  of  the  development  of  agriculture, 
and  from  which  the  explorer  must  one  day  bring  ma- 
terial for  history  and  inspiration  for  story. 

It  is  now  more  than  ten  years  since  these  studies 
were  begun.  Some  of  the  material  has  been  published 
in  bulletins  and  journals,  as  indicated  at  intervals  in 
the  text;  but  the  continuity  of  the  effort  and  the  full 
historical  retrospect  are  first  apparent  in  this  book. 
The  prosecution  of  the  studies  has  demanded  the  con- 
sultation of  original  sources  of  information,  when 
such  have  been  accessible,  and  it  has  required  much 
travel,  including  a  visit  to  European  herbaria  in  which 
the  types  of  certain  species  of  plants  are  deposited  ; 
and  the  necessity  of  these  verifications  has  delayed 
the  publication  of  the  work  two  years  after  the  com- 
pletion of  the  manuscript.  Yet,  the  book  is  only  a 
sketch.  The  subject  has  little  continuity  or  homo- 

(vii) 


Vlll  PREFACE 

geneity  of  itself,  and  is  not  well  adapted  to  mono- 
graphic treatment.  Therefore,  no  attempt  is  made  to 
discuss  all  the  native  fruits  which  promise  useful 
results  to  the  cultivator.  It  is  enough  if  it  has  been 
shown  how  the  leading  types  now  cultivated  have 
come  to  be ;  and  in  the  prosecution  of  these  in- 
quiries, the  book  is  intended  as  a  companion  to 
"The  Survival  of  the  Unlike." 

Naturalists  and  experimenters  have  long  been  im- 
pressed with  the  prospective  importance  of  the  great 
number  of  North  American  plants  which  afford  edible 
parts  or  products.  There  is  much  literature  on  the 
subject ;  yet  this  writing  is  so  fragmentary  and  scat- 
tered that  the  present  importance  of  our  native  fruits, 
both  as  subjects  of  historical  inquiry  and  as  elements 
in  our  national  wealth,  is  not  appreciated  by  European 
writers.  In  support  of  this  statement,  I  have  only  to 
quote  these  sentences  from  DeCandolle's  "Origin  of 
Cultivated  Plants"  (page  448):  "A  noteworthy  fact  is 
the  absence  in  some  countries  of  indigenous  cultivated 
plants.  For  instance,  we  have  none  from  the  arctic 
or  antarctic  regions,  where,  it  is  true,  the  floras 
consist  of  but  few  species.  The  United  States,  in 
spite  of  their  vast  territory,  which  will  soon  support 
hundreds  of  millions  of  inhabitants,  only  yields,  as 
nutritious  plants  worth  cultivating,  the  Jerusalem  arti- 
choke and  the  gourds.  Zizania  aquatica,  which  the 
natives  gathered  wild,  is  a  grass  too  inferior  to  our 


PREFACE  IX 

cereals  and  to  rice  to  make  it  worth  the  trouble  of 
planting  it.  They  had  a  few  bulbs  and  edible  berries, 
but  they  have  not  tried  to  cultivate  them,  having  early 
received  the  maize,  which  was  worth  far  more."  And 
yet  the  American  grapes  have  given  rise  to  eight 
hundred  domestic  varieties,  the  American  plums  to 
more  than  two  hundred,  the  raspberries  to  three 
hundred,  and  various  other  native  fruits  have  a 
large  cultivated  progeny  !  Even  Darwin's  prophecy 
was  largely  fulfilled  when  he  wrote  it  ("Variation  of 
Animals  and  Plants,"  i.,  329):  "Had  North  America 
been  civilized  for  as  long  a  period,  and  as  thickly 
peopled,  as  Asia  or  Europe,  it  is  probable  that 
the  native  vines,  walnuts,  mulberries,  crabs  and 
plums  would  have  given  rise,  after  a  long  course 
of  cultivation,  to  a  multitude  of  varieties,  some 
extremely  different  from  their  parent -stocks ;  and 
escaped  seedlings  would  have  caused  in  the  New, 
as  in  the  Old  World,  much  perplexity  with  respect 
to  their  specific  distinctness  and  parentage." 

The  author  must  say,  however,  that  his  greatest 
satisfaction  in  the  book  is  in  the  record  of  the  men 
rather  than  in  that  of  the  fruits.  Professed  historical 
inquiry  often  confines  itself  within  arbitrary  bounds, 
not  covering  the  whole  sweep  of  human  progress. 
The  names  which  are  generally  known  are  those  of 
persons  who  are  distinguished  in  military  operations, 
politics,  general  science,  or  literature ;  but  persons 


X  PREFACE 

who  have  expended  equal  talent  and  effort  in  other 
and  more  restricted  fields  of  activity  may  have 
wrought  as  much  permanent  good  to  mankind. 
The  agricultural  and  industrial  status  of  an  epoch 
may  be  of  greater  importance  to  the  progress  of 
a  people  than  the  political  complexion  is.  It  is 
a  question  if  the  habit  of  dwelling  upon  a  few 
very  prominent  names  in  a  few  fields  of  human 
endeavor  does  not  tend  to  obscure  the  really 
fundamental  movements  and  to  distort  historical 
perspectives.  At  all  events,  the  writer  is  glad  of  the 
opportunity  to  give  what  prominence  he  may  to 
persons  who  have  rendered  a  service  to  the  national 
welfare  in  fields  which  are  little  appreciated. 

L.  H.   BAILEY. 

MUNICH,  GERMANY,  April  15,  1898. 


CONTENTS 


PAGES 

THE  RISE  OF  THE  AMERICAN  GRAPE 1-126 

North  America  is  a  natural  vineland 2 

Early  attempts  to  cultivate  the  European  grape  ....  9 

The  first  experiment  of  the  Dufours -    .    .    .  21 

The  second  experiment  of  the  Dufours 33 

The  branch  of  promise 42 

John  Adlum  and  the  Catawba 50 

The  rise  of  commercial  viticulture 61 

Why  did  the  early  vine  experiments  fail  ? 88 

Synopsis  of  the  American  species  of  grapes 98 

American  grape  literature 117 

II 

THE  STRANGE  HISTORY  OF  THE  MULBERRIES 127-169 

Summary  sketch  of  the  early  silk  industry 127 

The  "multicaulis  craze" 141 

An  account  of  the  mulberries 158 

III 

THE  EVOLUTION  OF  AMERICAN  PLUMS  AND  CHERRIES  .    .    .  170-248 

The  native  plums  in  general 173 

The  Americana  group  of  plums 181 

The  Chickasaw  group 191 

The  Hortulana  group 194 

The  Marianna  group 208 

The  Beach  plum  group 214 

The  Pacific  coast  plum 215 

(xi) 


Xll 


CONTENTS 


PAGES 

Various  other  types  of  plums 218 

The  native  cherries 226 

The  dwarf  cherry  group 233 

Retrospect 247 

IV 

THE  NATIVE  APPLES 249-273 

The  indigenous  species 250 

Amelioration  has  begun 261 

V 

THE  ORIGIN  OF  AMERICAN  RASPBERRY -GROWING 274-297 

Early  American  history 275 

The  present  types  of   cultivated  raspberries 286 

Outlying  types 297 

VI 

EVOLUTION  OF  BLACKBERRY  AND  DEWBERRY  CULTURE   .    .  298-385 

The  high -bush  blackberry  and  its  kin 305 

The  dewberries 330 

Remaining  types  of  blackberry-like  plants 357 

The  botanical  names  of  the   blackberries  and  dew-          366 
berries 


VII 

VARIOUS  TYPES  OF  BERRY -LIKE  FRUITS  . 

The  gooseberry 

Native  currants 

The  juneberry 

The  buffalo  berry 

The  elderberry 

High -bush  cranberry 

The  cranberry 

The  strawberry 


386-432 


404 
406 
410 
412 
414 
424 


CONTENTS  Xlll 

VIII 

PAGES 

VARIOUS  TYPES  OP  TREE  FRUITS 433-447 

The  persimmon 433 

The  custard- apple  tribe 441 

The  thorn-apples 443 

The  nut-fruits 445 

IX 

GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  OUR  NATIVE 

FRUITS 448-461 

What  has  been  done 448 

What  probably  should  be  done 456 

INDEX .  .  463 


SKETCH  OF 

THE  EVOLUTION  OF  OUR 
NATIVE  FRUITS 


THE  RISE  OF  THE  AMERICAN  GRAPE 

NORTH  AMERICA  has  given  the  world  a  new  fruit 
in  its  grapes.  The  grape  of  Europe  and  of  history 
has  always  led  a  precarious  existence  when  intro- 
duced into  our  eastern  states,  and  it  is  now  wholly 
supplanted  in  this  region  by  the  ameliorated  off- 
spring of  the  native  species.  This  American  grape 
is  much  unlike  the  European  fruit.  It  is  essentially 
a  table  fruit,  whereas  the  other  is  a  wine  fruit. 
European  writings  treat  of  the  vine,  but  American 
writings  speak  of  grapes.  This  difference  in  names 
records  a  true  unlikeuess  between  the  fruits,  for  a 
fruit  which  is  eaten  from  the  hand  leaves  the  im- 
press of  itself  upon  the  mind,  but  one  which  is 
crushed  and  passed  into  wine  leaves  only  the  impress 
of  the  vine  and  the  vineyard.  But  the  early  Amer- 
ican writings  also  treated  of  the  vine  and  wine,  and 
it  was  not  until  the  middle  of  the  present  century 
that  the  modern  table  use  of  the  native  grape  began 
to  be  appreciated  and  understood.  It  will  be  inter- 
esting to  trace  the  progress  of  this  curious  evolution. 


2  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

North  America  is  a  Natural    Vineland 

The  first  record  of  America  is  also  a  record  of 
its  grapes.  Leif,  son  of  Eric,  the  old  Norse  navi- 
gator, touched  our  northeastern  shores  in  about  the 
year  1000.  "Farther  south  and  westerly  they  went," 
says  Justin  Winsor's  narrative,  "and  going  up  a 
river  came  into  an  expanse  of  water,  where  on  the 
shores  they  built  huts  to  lodge  in  for  the  winter, 
and  sent  out  exploring  parties.  In  one  of  these, 
Tyrker,  a  native  of  a  part  of  Europe  where  grapes 
grew,  found  vines  hung  with  their  fruit,  which  in- 
duced Leif  to  call  the  country  Vineland."  The  Eng- 
lish colonists  found  the  coasts  of  what  is  now  New 
England  to  be  profuse  in  grapes.  In  1621,  Edward 
Winslow  wrote  that  "here  [in  New  England]  are 
grapes,  white  and  red,  and  very  sweet  and  strong 
also."  In  1630,  Francis  Higginson  said  that  "ex- 
cellent Vines  are  here  up  and  downe  in  the  Woods. 
Our  Governour  hath  already  planted  a  Vineyard  with 
great  hope  of  encrease."  Thomas  Morton,  in  his 
"New  English  Canaan,"  an  account  of  New  England 
in  1632,  wrote  as  follows:  "Vines,  of  this  kind  of 
trees,  there  are  that  beare  grapes  of  three  colours, 
that  is  to  say :  white,  black  and  red.  The  Country 
is  so  apt  to  vines,  that  (but  for  the  fire  at  the 
spring  of  the  yeare)  the  vines  would  so  over  spreade 
the  land,  that  one  should  not  be  able  to  passe  for 
them,  the  fruit  is  as  bigg  of  some ;  as  a  musket 
bullet,  and  is  excellent  in  taste."  The  Massachusetts 
colonists  made  wine  of  the  native  grapes  during 
their  first  summer,  but  Edward  Everett  Hale  re- 
marks that  "the  appetite  for  such  wine  does  not  seem 


EARLY  RECORDS  OF  GRAPES  3 

perilous."  Governor's  Island,  in  Boston  Harbor,  was 
granted  to  Governor  Winthrop  in  1632,  upon  the 
condition  that  he  should  plant  a  vineyard  or  orchard 
upon  it ;  and  in  1634  the  yearly  rent  was  a  hogs- 
head of  wine. 

England,  however,  is  not  a  wine -making  country. 
The  vine  is  there  grown  laboriously  upon  walls  and 
under  glass,  to  rescue  it  from  the  uncongenial  cool- 
ness of  the  summers.  So  the  New  Englanders  ap- 
pear not  to  have  given  great  attention  to  wine -mak- 
ing, either  from  the  native  grape  or  from  plantations 
of  introduced  vines.  Then,  the  summers  are  too  short 
and  the  winters  too  severe  to  give  much  encourage- 
ment to  the  growing  of  the  vine  for  wine -making 
in  New  England,  and  we  must  look  farther  south  for 
the  early  evolution  of  the  American  grape. 

The  Spanish  colonists  in  Florida  were  attracted 
by  the  wild  grapes.  John  Hawkins,  an  English  cap- 
tain, visited  these  settlements  in  1565,  and  said  that 
twenty  hogsheads  of  wine  had  been  made  in  a  single 
season,  and  he  speaks  of  the  wild  grapes,  which 
"  taste  much  like  our  English  grapes."  The  intrepid 
French  adventurers  and  colonists  were  everywhere 
attracted  by  the  abundance  of  grapes,  and  we  find 
accounts  of  their  wine-making  far  in  the  interior 
country.  In  1769,  the  French  settlers  at  Kaskaskia, 
in  southern  Illinois,  made  110  hogsheads  of  wine 
from  wild  grapes.  Even  as  far  north  as  Michigan, 
these  voyageurs  found  the  banks  of  the  streams  fes- 
tooned with  the  vines  and  the  purple  fruits  hanging 
in  wild  abandon  in  the  rich  September  sun.  Over  a 
hundred*  years  ago,  a  party  of  these  explorers  pushed 
up  a  river  in  southern  Michigan  and,  noticing  the 


4  THE    EVOLUTION     OF     OUR    NATIVE     FRUITS 

grapes,  cried  out,  "Le  raisin!  Le  raisin  !"  (the  grape, 
the  grape),  and  they  called  the  stream  "La  riviere 
au  raisin,"  and  it  is  known  as  River  Raisin  to  this 
day. 

In  the  middle  Atlantic  region,  the  native  grape 
also  attracted  much  attention  from  the  colonists  and 
travelers.  Captain  John  Smith  saw  in  Virginia,  in 
1607-9,  as  he  relates,  "Of  vines,  great  abundance  in 
many  parts,  that  climbe  the  toppes  of  the  highest 
trees  in  some  places,  but  these  beare  but  fewe  grapes. 
But  by  the  rivers  and  Savage  habitations  where  they 
are  not  overshadowed  from  the  sunne,  they  are  cov- 
ered with  fruit,  though  never  pruined  nor  manured. 
Of  those  hedge  grapes,  wee  made  neere  20  gallons  of 
wine,  which  was  neare  as  good  as  your  French  Brit- 
tish  wine,  but  certainely  they  would  prove  good  were 
they  well  manured.  There  is  another  sort  of  grape 
neere  as  great  as  a  Cherry,  this  they  [the  Indians] 
call  Messaminnes ;  they  bee  fatte,  and  the  iuyce 
thicke  :  neither  doth  the  tast  so  well  please  when 
they  are  made  in  wine." 

In  1648,  Beauchamp  Plantagenet,  in  his  quaint 
account  of  "New  Albion,"  describes  "Uvedale  under 
Websneck"  (a  part  of  Delaware)  as  "a  valley  sixe 
miles  long,  sheltered  by  hils  from  the  North-west 
windes:  below  it  is  sixe  miles  a  thicket  of  four  sorts 
of  excellent  great  Vines  running  on  Mulberry  and  Sas- 
safras trees;  there  are  four  sorts  of  Grapes,  the  first 
is  the  Thoulouse  Muscat,  sweet  seuted,  the  second 
the  great  foxe  and  thick  grape,  after  five  moneths 
reaped  being  boyled  and  salted,  and  well  fined,  it  is 
a  strong  red  Xeres;  the  third  a  light  Claret,  the"  fourth 
a  white  Grape  creeps  on  the  land,  maketh  a  pure 


THE    FOX -GRAPE  5 

GOLD  colour  white  wine:  Tenis  Pale  the  French  man 
of  these  four  made  eight  sorts  of  excellent  wine,  and 
of  the  Muscat  acute  boy  led  that  the  second  draught 
will  fox  [intoxicate]  a  reasonable  pate  four  inoneths 
old:  and  here  may  be  gathered  and  made  two  hundred 
tun  in  the  Vintage  Moneth,  and  re -planted  will  mend." 
These  grapes  which  Plantagenet  saw,  were  undoubt- 
edly native  to  the  country;  for  although  he  uses  the 
name  Muscat,  it  must  be  remembered  that  this  word, 
and  such  other  foreign  names  as  Madeira  and  Tokay, 
were  freely  applied  to  wild  varieties  which  bore  a 
general  resemblance  to  European  varieties  having 
these  names.  One  of  the  significant  parts  of  this 
account  is  the  use  of  the  verb  to  fox  for  "intoxicate." 
The  term  fox -grape  was  evidently  applied  to  various 
kinds  of  native  grapes  in  the  early  days,  although  it 
is  now  restricted  to  the  Vitis  Labrusca  of  the  Atlan- 
tic slope.  Several  explanations  have  been  given  of 
the  origin  of  the  name  fox -grape,  some  supposing 
that  it  came  from  a  belief  that  foxes  eat  the  grapes, 
others  that  the  odor  of  the  grape  suggests  that  of 
the  fox — an  opinion  to  which  Beverley  subscribed 
nearly  two  centuries  ago  —  and  still  others  thinking 
that  it  was  suggested  by  some  resemblance  of  the 
leaves  to  a  fox's  track.  William  Bartram,  writing 
at  the  beginning  of  this  century,  in  the  Medical  Re- 
pository, is  pronounced  in  his  convictions:  "The 
strong  rancid  smell  of  its  ripe  fruit,  very  like  the 
effluvia  arising  from  the  body  of  the  fox,"  "gave 
rise  to  the  specific  name  of  this  vine,  and  not,  as 
many  have  imagined,  from  its  being  the  favourite 
food  of  the  animal;  for  the  fox  (at  least  the  Amer- 
ican species)  seldom  eats  grapes  or  other  fruit  if 


6      THE  EVOLUTION  OF  OUE  NATIVE  FRUITS 

he  can  get  animal  food."  I  am  inclined  to  suggest, 
however,  that  the  name  may  have  originated  from 
the  lively  foxing  or  intoxicating  qualities  of  the  poor 
wine  which  was  made  from  the  wild  grapes.*  At 
the  present  day,  we  speak  of  "foxiness"  when  we  wish 
to  recall  the  musk -like  flavor  of  the  wild  Vitis  La- 
brusca;  but  this  use  of  the  term  is  of  later  origin, 
and  was  suggested  by  the  name  of  the  grape. 

"A  Perfect  Description  of  Virginia,"  a  narrative 
"sent  from  Virginia,  at  the  request  of  a  Gentleman 
of  worthy  note,  who  desired  to  know  the  true  State 
of  Virginia  as  it  now  stands,"  but  published  anony- 
mously in  1649,  records:  "Vines  in  abundance  and 
variety,  do  grow  naturally  over  all  the  land,  but  by 
the  birds  and  beasts,  most  devouted  before  they  come 
to  perfection  and  ripenesse;  but  this  testifies  and  de- 
clares, That  the  Ground,  and  the  Climate  is  most 
proper,  and  the  Commodity  of  Wine  is  not  a  con- 
temptible Merchandize;  but  some  men  of  worth  and 
estate  must  give  in  these  things  example  to  the  infe- 
riour  inhabitants  and  ordinary  sort  of  men,  to  shew 
them  the  gain  and  Commodity  by  it,  which  they  will 
not  believe  but  by  experience  before  their  faces." 

Robert  Beverley,  who  wrote  a  "History  of  Virginia" 
in  1722,  gives  a  very  explicit  account  of  the  products 
of  the  country.  "Of  the  natural  productions  and  con- 
veniences of  Virginia  in  its  unimprov'd  state,  before 
the  English  went  thither,"  he  has  the  following  to  say 
upon  the  vine:  "Grapes  grow  there  in  an  incredible 
Plenty,  and  Variety;  some  of  which  are  very  sweet 

"The  following  entry  in  Pepys's  Diary  (vol.  i.  p.  82;  1659)  shows  that  to  fox 
meant  to  get  drunk:  "He  went  with  me  to  my  office,  whither  also  Mr.  Madge 
comes  half  foxed  and  played  the  fool  upon  the  violin  that  made  me  weary." 


GRAPES     IN    VIRGINIA  7 

and  pleasant  to  the  taste,  others  rough  and  harsh, 
and,  perhaps,  fitter  for  Wine  or  Brandy.  I  have  seen 
great  Trees  covered  with  single  Vines,  and  those  Vines 
almost  hid  with  the  Grapes.  Of  these  wild  grapes, 
besides  those  large  ones  in  the  Mountains,  mention 'd 
by  Baft  in  his  Discovery,  I  have  observed  four  very 
different  Kinds,  viz. 

"One  of  the  Sorts  grows  among  the  Sandbanks, 
upon  the  Edges  of  the  low  Grounds,  and  Islands  next 
the  Bay,  and  Sea,  and  also  in  the  Swamps  and  Breaches 
of  the  Up-lands.  They  grow  thin  in  small  Bunches, 
and  upon  very  low  Vines.  These  are  noble  Grapes; 
and  tho'  they  are  wild  in  the  Woods,  are  as  large  as 
the  Dutch  Gooseberry.  One  Species  of  them  is  white, 
others  purple,  blue,  and  black,  but  all  much  alike  in 
Flavour,  and  some  long,  some  round. 

"A  second  Kind  is  produced  throughout  the  whole 
country,  in  the  Swamps  and  Sides  of  Hills.  These 
also  grow  upon  small  Vines,  and  in  small  Bunches; 
but  are  themselves  the  largest  Grapes  as  big  as  the 
English  Bullace,  and  of  a  rank  Taste  when  ripe, 
resembling  the  smell  of  a  Fox,  from  whence  they  are 
called  Fox -Grapes.  Both  these  Sorts  make  admirable 
Tarts,  being  of  a  fleshly  Substance,  and  perhaps,  if 
rightly  managed,  might  make  good  Raisins. 

"There  are  two  Species  more,  that  are  common  to 
the  whole  Country,  some  of  which  are  black,  and 
some  blue  on  the  out -side,  and  some  white.  They 
grow  upon  vast  large  Vines,  and  bear  very  plenti- 
fully. The  nice  Observer  might,  perhaps,  distinguish 
them  into  several  Kinds,  because  they  differ  in  Col- 
our, Size,  and  Relish  ;  but  I  shall  divide  them  only 
into  two ;  viz.  the  early,  and  the  late  ripe.  The 


8      THE  EVOLUTION  OF  OUE  NATIVE  FRUITS 

early  ripe  common  Grape  is  much  larger,  sweeter, 
and  better  than  the  other.  Of  these  some  are  quite 
black,  and  others  blue,  and  some  white,  or  yellow ; 
some  also  ripen  three  Weeks,  or  a  Month  before  the 
other.  The  Distance  of  their  Ripening,  is  from  the 
latter  End  of  August,  to  the  latter  End  of  October. 
The  late  ripe  common  Grapes  are  less  than  any  of 
the  other,  neither  are  they  so  pleasant  to  the  Taste. 
They  hang  commonly  till  the  latter  End  of  Novem- 
ber, or  till  Christmas ;  all  that  I  have  seen  of  these 
are  black.  Of  the  former  of  these  two  Sorts,  the 
French  Refugees  at  the  Monacan  Town  made  a  sort 
of  Claret,  tho'  they  were  gathered  off  of  the  wild 
Vines  in  the  Woods.  I  was  told  by  a  very  good 
judge,  who  tasted  it,  that  it  was  a  pleasant,  strong, 
and  full  bodied  Wine.  From  which  we  may  con- 
clude, that  if  the  Wine  was  but  tolerably  good,  when 
made  of  the  Wild  Grape,  which  is  shaded  by  the 
Woods  from  the  Sun,  it  would  be  much  better,  if 
produc'd  of  the  same  Grape  cultivated  in  a  regular 
Vineyard." 

Jean  Pierre  Purry  speaks  of  the  abundance  of 
wild  grapes  in  South  Carolina,  in  his  description  of 
that  province,  written  in  French,  published  in  1731: 
"The  woods  are  full  of  wild  Vines,  bearing  5  or  6 
sorts  of  Grapes  naturally  ;  but  for  want  of  Vine- 
dressers, &c.  scarce  any  Wine  is  drank  there  but 
what  comes  from  Madera,  which  are  indeed  cheap, 
for  a  bottle  of  excellent  Wine  cost  last  Winter  but 
2s.  Carolina  Money  to  those  who  bought  it  by  the 
Hogshead."  William  Bartram,  traveling  in  north- 
western Florida  in  1776,  found  the  trees  and  bushes 
"entangled  with  grape  vines  (Vitis  campestris)  of  a 


WILD     GRAPES     IN     FLORIDA  9 

peculiar  species  ;  the  bunches  (racemes)  of  fruit  were 
very  large,  as  were  the  grapes  that  composed  them, 
though  yet  green  and  not  fully  grown  [the  middle 
of  July],  but  when  ripe  are  of  various  colours,  and 
their  juice  sweet  and  rich.  The  Indians  gather  great 
quantities  of  them,  which  they  prepare  for  keeping, 
by  first  sweating  them  on  hurdles  over  a  gentle  fire, 
and  afterwards  dry  them  on  their  bunches  in  the 
sun  and  air,  and  store  them  up  for  provisions  :  these 
grape  vines  do  not  climb  into  high  trees,  but  creep 
along  from  one  low  shrub  to  another,  extending  their 
branches  to  a  great  distance  horizontally  round  about, 
and  it  is  very  pleasing  to  behold  the  clusters  pendant 
from  the  vines,  almost  touching  the  earth,  indeed 
some  of  them  lie  upon  the  ground." 

Early  Attempts    to   Cultivate    the   European   Grape 

It  is  not  necessary  to  extend  this  inquiry  of  the 
early  records  of  the  native  grapes.  Numerous  quota- 
tions could  be  made  from  the  early  narrators.  It  is 
enough  to  know  that  these  fruits  grow  wild  in  the 
greatest  profusion  in  the  wooded  parts  of  North 
America  from  the  Great  Lakes  to  the  Gulf  and  from 
ocean  to  ocean.  It  is  more  to  our  purpose  to  inquire 
if  the  European  vine  ( Vitis  vinifera)  was  introduced 
into  the  country  and  what  the  outcome  was. 

It  was  early  conceived  that  wine -making  must  be 
a  profitable  business  in  the  New  World  because  of 
the  cheapness  of  the  land ;  and  the  opinion  was  no 
doubt  strengthened  by  the  fact  of  the  profusion  of 
wild  grapes,  for  these  betokened  a  climate  congenial 
to  the  vine.  The  first  concerted  attempt  to  cultivate 


10  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

the  European  or  wine  grape  in  North  America  seems 
to  have  been  that  of  the  London  Company,  in  1621 
and  1622.  The  Company  was  then  under  the  direc- 
torship of  the  Earl  of  Southampton.  In  a  letter 
from  the  Company  to  the  colonial  authorities,  dated 
the  12th  of  August,  1621,  and  sent  by  the  ship 
Marmaduke,  is  the  following  information:  "Since 
the  conclusion  of  our  letter  we  have  received  from 
his  Ma' tie  a  Petition  exhibiting  unto  him  by  certain 
ffrenchmen  and  Walloones  Desires  to  inhabite  in  Vir- 
ginia :  we  have  considered  of  these  propositions  and 
have  returned  them  so  fine  an  answer  as  wee  consider 
they  will  resolve  to  go,  they  wilbe  60  families,  con- 
sisting of  about  300  persons,  you  may  expect  them 
cominge  about  the  next  spring.  We  hope  they  wilbe 
a  great  strength  to  the  Collony." 

In  a  letter  of  September  21st,  of  the  same  year, 
sent  by  the  ship  Warwick,  it  is  recorded  that  "there 
are  two  French  youths  now  sent  to  Capt.  Tho.  Nuce, 
part  of  those  ten  promised  him  the  next  Springe." 
This  letter  also  mentions  the  sending  of  silk -worm 
eggs  and  grape  vines:  "By  the  Dutie  wch  about  the 
middle  of  next  month  is  to  depart  we  hope  you  shall 
receive  full  sattisfaccon  [i.  e.  the  answering  of  certain 
questions] ;  wch  Shipp  shall  bring  with  her  store  of 
silke  worme  seed  and  abundance  of  vine  plants,  for 
both  wch  we  desire  not  only  that  generall  pperations 
be  made,  but  that  timely  notice  and  order  be  given 
throughout  the  whole  colony,  that  every  pticuler  man 
may  make  prouision  for  the  receiuinge  of  some  quan- 
titie  of  them  both,  and  that  a  straight  charge  be 
giuen  for  the  pserving  of  vines  and  mulberry  trees, 
wch  we  understand  with  others  are  promiscuously 


EFFORTS    OF    THE    LONDON    COMPANY  11 

defrayed;  and  because  the  skill  of  handling  them  is 
only  deriued  from  the  Frenchmen  we  canot  but  here 
recomend  this  to  yor  fauor  and  regard  that  they  may 
be  kindly  used  and  cherished."  The  letter  also  rep- 
resents that  supplies  were  furnished  for  the  French- 
men and  Dutchmen  (the  latter  having  been  sent  to 
erect  saw-mills).  The  supplies  were  "diuers  provis- 
ions of  victualls  as  also  a  cloth  to  make  them  appar- 
rell;  for  hose  and  shoes  and  other  such  matters  we 
desire  they  may  be  supplied  by  the  Companies  stock 
there,  out  of  the  Magazine  wch  now  comes  along  in 
the  Warwicke  large  and  abundante  in  all  usefull  and 
necessarie  comodities." 

It  is  evident  from  this  narrative  that  the  London 
Company  desired  to  introduce  the  cultivation  of  the 
vine  into  Virginia  and  that  it  encouraged  the  immi- 
gration of  the  French  for  that  purpose.  The  experi- 
ment seems  to  have  come  to  naught,  however.  Bever- 
ley,  writing  a  hundred  years  later,  speaks  of  the 
attempt  as  follows:  "The  Year  before  the  Massacre, 
Anno  1622,  which  destroyed  so  many  good  Projects 
for  Virginia;  some  French  Vignerons  were  sent  thither, 
to  make  an  Experiment  of  their  Vines.  These  People 
were,  so  in  Love  with  the  Country,  that  the  Character 
they  then  gave  of  it,  in  their  Letters  to  the  Company 
in  England,  was  very  much  to  its  Advantage,  namely, 
'That  it  far  excell'd  their  own  Country  of  Languedoc: 
The  Vines  growing  in  great  Abundance  and  Variety 
all  over  the  Land:  That  some  of  the  Grapes  were 
of  that  unusual  Bigness,  that  they  did  not  believe 
them  to  be  Grapes,  until  by  opening  them,  they  had 
seen  their  Kernels:  That  they  had  planted  the  Cut- 
tings of  their  Vines  at  Michcelmas,  and  had  Grapes 


12        THE  EVOLUTION  OP  OUR  NATIVE  FRUITS 

from  those  very  Cuttings,  the  Spring  following.  Add- 
ing in  the  Conclusion,  that  they  had  not  heard  of  the 
like  in  any  other  Country:'  Neither  was  this  out  of 
the  Way,  for  I  have  made  the  same  Experiment  both 
of  their  natural  Vine,  and  of  the  Plants  sent  thither 
from  England."  There  appears  to  be  some  anachro- 
nism here,  for  there  is  no  record  of  any  Frenchmen 
having  arrived,  save  the  two  boys,  in  1621.  They 
were  expected  to  arrive  "about  the  next  spring."  The 
massacre  occurred  on  the  22nd  of  March,  1622.  It  is 
probable  that  Beverley  is  in  error  in  attributing  the 
termination  of  the  grape  experiment  to  the  massacre; 
but  it  is  enough  for  our  purpose  to  know  that  noth- 
ing of  permanent  value  came  of  the  enterprise.  It  is 
said,  however,  that  in  1651,  premiums  were  offered 
for  wines  of  domestic  manufacture.  In  Berkeley's 
time  "some  Vineyards"  had  been  attempted,  "and  one 
is  brought  to  perfection,  of  750  Gallons  a  Year.  The 
Wine  drinks  at  present  greenish,  but  the  Owner  doubts 
not  of  good  Wine,  in  a  Year  or  two  more,  and  takes 
great  Delight  that  Way." 

We  have  already  seen  that  John  Winthrop,  Gov- 
ernor of  the  Massachusetts  Bay,  started  a  vineyard  in 
one  of  the  islands  in  Boston  Harbor.  This  island 
came  to  be  early  known  as  "The  Governour's  Gar- 
den." The  rent  fixed  for  this  favored  spot  by  the 
General  Court,  in  1634,  was  "a  hogshead  of  the  best 
wyne  that  shall  grow  there  to  be  paide  yearly"  after 
the  death  of  Winthrop.  The  Massachusetts  Com- 
pany sent  to  the  colony,  in  1629,  "vine -planters, 
wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  a  hogshead  of  each  in  the 
ear:  beans,  pease,  stones  of  all  sorts  of  fruits,  as 
peaches,  plums,  filberts,  cherries:  pear,  apple,  quince 


EARLY    EXPERIMENTS  13 

kernels ; "  and  the  consignment  is  said  to  have  included 
pomegranates,  currant  plants,  potatoes,  and  other 
plants.  The  experiments  with  the  vines  seemed  to 
have  come  to  nothing.  Apparently  the  earliest  plan- 
tation of  vines  made  on  the  New  England  coast,  was 
that  at  the  mouth  of  the  Piscataqua,  on  the  borders 
of  the  present  state  of  Maine.  This  settlement  was 
made  in  1623,  but  in  1630  Ambrose  Gibbons,  agent 
of  Mason  and  Gorges,  settled  there  for  the  purpose 
of  founding  a  plantation,  according  to  Slade,  "to  cul- 
tivate the  vine,  discover  mines,  carry  on  the  fisheries, 
and  trade  with  the  natives."  The  planted  vines  failed, 
but  "them  that  grow  naturally"  were  reported  to  have 
been  "very  good  of  divers  sorts."  Probably  every 
important  settlement  in  what  is  now  New  England 
made  an  especial  effort  to  grow  the  grape.  There 
are  frequent  references  to  such  attempts  in  the  early 
records  of  the  colonies.  But  all  of  them  sooner  or 
later  failed,  and  we  shall  not,  therefore,  pursue  the 
history  further. 

Following  the  revoking  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  in 
1685,  by  Louis  XIV.,  many  Huguenots  sought  refuge 
in  America.  They  settled  chiefly  in  the  Carolinas  and 
Georgia,  and  they  brought  with  them  the  French  love 
for  vine -culture  and  wine.  They  made  many  attempts 
at  vine -growing,  but  with  no  permanent  success  ;  yet 
the  efforts  kept  the  subject  before  the  public  mind, 
and  out  of  the  failures  there  finally  came  a  type  of 
grapes  which  persists  to  this  day.  The  attempts  were 
repeated  until  well  into  the  present  century,  however, 
always  with  poor  or  indifferent  success.  About  1800, 
one  Magget  is  recorded  to  have  obtained  a  grant  of 
money  from  the  legislature  of  South  Carolina  for  the 


14  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUE    NATIVE    FRUITS 

purpose  of  extending  the  planting  of  grapes  in  that 
colony. 

The  trustees  of  the  colony  of  Georgia  early  made 
attempts  at  the  cultivation  of  the  vine  in  Georgia. 
One  of  the  famous  efforts  of  those  days  was  that  of 
Abraham  De  Lyon,  who,  under  the  encouragement  of 
the  Trustees,  procured  vines  from  Portugal  and 
planted  them  in  his  garden  in  Savannah.  Jones,  in 
his  "History  of  Georgia,"  makes  the  following  quo- 
tation from  Colonel  William  Stephens,  "as  present- 
ing the  only  picture  of  a  Georgia  colonial  vineyard 
which  has  been  handed  down  to  us." 

"Tuesday,  December  6th,  1737.  After  dinner 
walked  out  to  see  what  Improvement  of  Vines  were 
made  by  one  Mr.  Lyon  a  Portugese  Jew,  which  I  had 
heard  some  talk  of ;  and  indeed  nothing  had  given 
me  so  much  Pleasure  since  my  Arrival  as  what  I 
found  here ;  though  it  was  yet  ( if  I  may  say  it 
properly),  only  a  Miniature,  for  he  had  cultivated 
only  for  two  or  three  Years  past  about  half  a 
Score  of  them  which  he  received  from  Portugal  for 
an  Experiment ;  and  by  his  Skill  and  Management 
in  pruning  &c.,  they  all  bore  this  Year  very  plen- 
tifully a  most  beautiful,  large  Grape  as  big  as  a 
Man's  Thumb,  almost  pellucid,  and  Bunches  exceed- 
ing big ;  all  which  was  attested  by  Persons  of  un- 
questionable Credit  (whom  I  had  it  from)  but  the 
Season  now  would  allow  me  only  to  see  the  Vines 
they  were  gathered  from,  which  were  so  flourishing 
and  strong  that  I  saw  one  Shoot,  of  this  last  Year 
only,  which  he  allowed  to  grow  from  the  Root  of  a 
bearing  Vine,  as  big  as  my  Walking -Cane,  and  run 
over  a  few  Poles  laid  to  receive  it,  at  least  twelve 


EXPERIMENTS    IN    GEORGIA  15 

or  fourteen  Foot,  as  near  as  I  could  judge.  From 
these  he  has  raised  more  than  a  Hundred,  which  he 
has  planted  all  in  his  little  Garden  behind  his  House 
at  about  four  Foot  Distance  each,  in  the  Manner  and 
Form  of  a  Vineyard :  They  have  taken  Root  and 
are  about  one  Foot  and  a  half  high  ;  the  next  Year 
he  says  he  does  not  doubt  raising  a.  Thousand  more, 
and  the  Year  following  at  least  five  Thousand.  I 
could  not  believe  (considering  the  high  Situation  of 
the  Town  upon  a  Pine  Barren,  and  the  little  Ap- 
pearance of  such  Productions  in  these  little  Spots 
of  Ground  annexed  to  the  House)  but  that  he  had 
found  some  proper  Manure  wherewith  to  improve  the 
sandy  Soil  ;  but  he  assured  me  it  was  nothing  but 
the  natural  Soil,  without  any  other  Art  than  his 
Planting  and  Pruning  which  he  seemed  to  set  some 
Value  on  from  his  Experience  in  being  bred  among 
the  Vineyards  in  Portugal;  and,  to  convince  the  World 
that  he  intends  to  pursue  it  from  the  Encouragement 
of  the  Soil  proving  so  proper  for  it,  he  has  at  this 
Time  hired  four  Men  to  clear  and  prepare  as  much 
Land  as  they  possibly  can  upon  his  forty -five  Acre 
Lot,  intending  to  convert  every  Foot  of  the  whole 
that  is  fit  for  it  into  a  Vineyard  :  though  he  com- 
plains of  his  present  Inability  to  be  at  such  an  ex- 
pense as  to  employ  Servants  for  Hire.  From  hence 
I  could  not  but  reflect  on  the  small  Progress  that 
has  been  made  hitherto  in  propagating  vines  in  the 
publick  Garden  where,  the  Soil  being  the  same,  it 
must  be  owing  to  the  Unskilfulness  or  Negligence  of 
those  who  had  undertaken  that  Charge." 

But    the   attempt    soon    failed.      William    Bacon 
Stevens,   in    his    "History   of    Georgia,"   writes    that 


16  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

"the  wine  which  was  to  supply  all  the  plantations, 
and  to  cultivate  which  they  had  employed  a  vigneron 
from  Portugal,  and  planted  in  their  gardens  the 
choicest  cuttings  from  Madeira,  resulted  in  only  a 
few  gallons,  and  was  then  abandoned." 

One  of  the  most  enterprising  and  intelligent  early 
cultivators  of  the  grape  in  this  region  was  Nicholas 
Herbemont,  of  Columbia,  South  Carolina,  whose  name 
is  now  given  to  one  of  the  best  wine  grapes  of  the 
South.  As  late  as  January,  1828,  he  opens  a  series  of 
articles  in  the  Southern  Agriculturist,  upon  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  grape  for  wine,  but  among  the  varie- 
ties which  he  chooses  are  derivatives  of  American  spe- 
cies, like  Herbemont,  Le  Noir,  Eland's  •  Madeira,  Isa- 
bella, and  the  like. 

It  is  said  that  Paul  Richards,  of  the  city  of  New 
York,  entered  upon  the  cultivation  of  the  wine  grape 
on  a  large  scale  some  two  hundred  and  fifty  years 
ago,  and  in  1664,  Nicolls,  the  first  English  governor 
of  New  York,  granted  Richards  the  privilege  of  mak- 
ing and  selling  wine  free  of  impost,  and  ordered  that 
all  persons  setting  vines  within  the  next  thirty  years 
should  pay  Richards  a  tax  of  five  shillings  for  every 
acre  planted.  William  Penn  planted  a  vineyard  near 
Philadelphia  in  1683,  the  year  following  his  coming 
to  America.  Andrew  Dore  made  an  attempt  near  by 
two  years  later.  Many  other  attempts  to  grow  the 
European  grape  were  made  in  various  parts  of  the 
country,  but  none  seem  to  have  been  successful. 

Yet  the  interest  in  vine -growing  persisted.  In 
1769,  Edward  Antill,  of  Monmouth,  New  Jersey,  wrote 
the  first  American  treatise  upon  the  vine.  It  was 
published  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Philosophical 


EDWARD    ANTILL  17 

Society  for  1771,  and  it  covers  over  eighty  quarto 
pages.  Antill  seems  to  have  been  inspired  with  a 
patriotic  devotion  to  the  welfare  of  his  country,  and 
his  treatise  bears  the  marks  of  that  broad  and  pro- 
phetic vision  which  is  so  characteristic  of  the  latter 
part  of  the  last  century.  "Nothing  but  the  love  of 
my  country  and  the  good  of  mankind,"  he  writes, 
"could  have  tempted  me  to  appear  and  expose  myself 
to  public  view."  "When  I  first  undertook  a  vine- 
yard," he  explains,  "I  can  without  the  least  spark  of 
vanity  say,  I  did  it  for  the  good  of  my  country,  and 
from  a  principle  of  love  to  mankind  ;  I  consider  that 
too  many  of  the  people  of  America  were  unhappily 
drawn  into  great  excesses  in  the  use  of  distilled  spirit- 
uous liquors,  which  ruin  their  constitutions,  and  soon 
render  them  unfit  for  the  service  of  God  and  their 
country,  as  well  as  for  that  of  their  own  family  and 
friends.  Wine,  on  the  contrary,  is  a  more  homogene- 
ous liquor,  more  wholesome,  and  much  better  adapted 
to  the  spirit,  and  constitution  of  man;  and  although 
men  will  run  into  excesses  in  the  use  of  it,  yet  it 
works  itself  off  better,  and  does  not  destroy  the  natural 
vital  heat  and  animal  spirits,  in  so  great  a  degree  and 
in  so  sudden  a  manner,  as  fiery,  distilled  liquors  do; 
for  these  reasons  I  went  on,  and  endeavoured  to  make 
myself  master  of  the  subject,  and  by  many  experi- 
ments to  satisfy  myself  of  the  truth  of  things."  It 
was  Antill's  ambition,  then,  to  grow  grapes  for  wine 
and  not  for  eating.  His  treatise  is  founded  largely 
upon  European  practice,  and  there  is  only  the  most 
meager  reference  to  any  American  experience.  He 
still  quotes  Columella.  He  says  in  his  introductory 
letter  that  the  industry  is  "yet  new  to  America,  though 


18  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUE    NATIVE    FRUITS 

an  undertaking  as  autient  at  least  as  the  days  of 
Noah."  There  is  other  evidence  that  the  undertaking 
had  received  little  close  attention,  for  he  knows  very 
few  natural  enemies  of  the  crop,  a  condition  of  things 
which  could  not  have  existed  if  the  vine  had  been  an 
important  subject  of  cultivation.  The  first  enemy  to 
the  vineyard  is  "people  of  every  age  and  sex,"  espe- 
cially the  "rude  and  unthinking  sort,"  which  "take  all 
advantages  of  your  absence  or  neglect  at  the  time  of 
the  fruit's  beginning  to  grow  ripe,  to  rob  and  pilfer." 
These  persons  "must  be  carefully  guarded  against,  by 
a  good,  close,  high  fence  without,  and  a  smart,  watch- 
ful dog  within,  and  especially  by  the  vigneron's  ap- 
pearing now  and  then  with  a  gun  in  his  hand,  walk- 
ing about  his  vineyard  in  an  evening."  He  then  men- 
tions birds,  some  of  which  "give  you  a  fine  song  for 
your  fruit;"  wasps,  which  pierce  the  grapes  "in  sev- 
eral places,  with  their  sharp -pointed  bills;"  "a  short, 
smooth  earth  worm,"  or  grub,  which  "often  cuts  off 
the  choicest  branches"  of  young  vines  near  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground;  and  finally,  there  were  "vine  fret- 
ters,"  which  are  "very  small  animalculae,  or  insects," 
which  "appear  in  great  numbers,  in  mere  clusters, 
upon  the  young,  tender  branches,  upon  the  juice  of 
which  they  feed."  Antill  devotes  much  space  to  the 
making  of  wine,  and  the  varieties  which  he  recom- 
mends were  all  of  the  European  stock.  Antill  is 
mentioned  by  S.  W.  Johnson  as  "a  gentleman  who 
cultivated  the  grape  with  sedulous  attention,"  and  he 
made  wine  and  shipped  some  of  it  to  England. 

Johnson  wrote  the  second  popular  treatise  on  the 
vine  which  has  come  down  to  us.  It  is  a  "book" 
or  chapter,  "On  the  Cultivation  of  the  Vine,"  com- 


PETER     LEGAUX  19 

prising  forty -three  pages  in  the  authors'  "Rural 
Economy,"  published  at  New  Brunswick,  New 
Jersey,  in  1806.*  He  drew  heavily  from  the  ex- 
periences and  writings  of  Antill.  He  mentions  the 
four  enemies  of  grape -growing  which  are  described 
by  Antill,  and  adds  remarks  upon  the  mildew  and 
hail,  and  rejoices  that  such  terrible  European  pests 
as  the  snail,  gribouri,  and  beche  — "which  no  art 
has  yet  been  found  adequate  to  conquer" — have  not 
yet  reached  America.  In  his  time,  the  former  seat 
of  Antill  was  occupied  by  Miles  Smith,  who  had 
"a  large  and  handsome  vineyard."  But  the  chief 
interest  which  Johnson's  account  has  to  us  is  the 
eulogium  which  he  pronounces  upon  Peter  Legaux, 
a  vine -grower  at  Spring  Mills,  thirteen  miles  north- 
west of  Philadelphia.  Legaux  appears  to  have 
been  the  most  intelligent  and  public -spirited  grape- 
grower  which  the  country  had  known ;  and  he  was 
the  person  who  introduced — though  unknowingly — the 
grape  which  ushered  in  the  distinctive  American 
viticulture.  We  shall  hear  more  of  Legaux  in  the 
following  pages,  and  we  shall  pause  now  only  to 
read  Johnson's  praise  of  him.  Our  author  speaks 
of  his  application  to  "the  philanthropic  M.  Legaux" 
for  information  on  the  grape,  and  then  proceeds : 
"The  liberality  with  which  M.  Legaux  gave  answers 
to  his  correspondent,  through  the  medium  of  the 
public  papers,  for  the  benefit  of  the  public  ;  the 
botanico  meterological  observations  made  for  fifteen 
years  successively,  drawn  out  on  purpose  to  answer 
the  questions  proposed,  and  also  published  for  gen- 

Mohnson's  pictures  of  grape  training  are  reproduced  in  "Pruning- Book,"  pp. 
391,  302. 


20  THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

eral  information  •,  the  extensive  usefulness  of  that 
gentleman  in  having  in  1801  supplied  Kentucky 
with  fifteen  hundred  cuttings,  Pennsylvania  with 
fifteen  hundred,  and  other  quantities  to  vineyards 
established  in  Connecticut,  New-York,  New-Jersey, 
Maryland,  Virginia,  and  the  State  of  Ohio,  from 
which  numerous  branches  have  since  issued,  awake 
fresh  sentiments  of  respect  for  so  useful  a  character. 
Such  men  merit  a  token  of  respect  from  every  state 
in  the  Union." 

The  attempt  to  grow  the  Old  World  wine  grapes 
out  of  doors  in  eastern  America  was  continued  until 
twenty -five  or  thirty  years  ago  ;  in  fact,  the  effort  is 
even  now  made  by  an  occasional  amateur.  Nicholas 
Longworth — of  whom  we  shall  yet  have  much  to 
say — wrote,  in  1845,  of  his  endeavors  in  this  direc- 
tion: "I  have  for  thirty  years  experimented  on  the 
foreign  grape,  both  for  the  table  and  for  wine. 
In  the  acclimation  of  plants,  I  do  not  believe  ;  for 
the  White  Sweet  Water  does  not  succeed  as  well 
with  me,  as  it  did  thirty  years  since.  I  obtained 
a  large  variety  of  French  grapes  from  Mr.  Loubat, 
many  years  since.  They  were  from  the  vicinity  of 
Paris  and  Bordeaux.  From  Madeira,  I  obtained  six 
thousand  vines  of  their  best  wine  grapes.  Not  one 
was  found  worthy  of  cultivation  in  this  latitude, 
and  were  rooted  from  the  vineyards.  As  a  last  ex- 
periment, I  imported  seven  thousand  vines  from  the 
mountains  of  Jura,  in  the  vicinity  of  Salins,  in 
France.  *  *  *  But  after  a  trial  of  five  years,  all 
have  been  thrown  away.  :  *  *  If  we  intend  cul- 
tivating the  grape  for  wine,  we  must  rely  on  our 
native  grapes,  and  new  varieties  raised  from  their 


JOHN    JAMES    DUPOUB  21 

seeds.  If  I  could  get  my  lease  of  life  renewed  for 
twenty  or  thirty  years,  I  would  devote  my  attention 
to  the  subject,  and  I  would  cross  our  best  native 
varieties  with  the  best  table  and  wine  grapes  of 
Europe." 

It  is  unnecessary  to  rehearse  other  attempts  to 
grow  the  foreign  grape  in  eastern  America.  All 
efforts  eventually  resulted  in  failure.  The  experiment 
has  been  tried  upon  an  extended  scale  by  many  ex- 
pert men  for  a  period  of  over  two  centuries.  We 
shall,  therefore,  consider  the  history  of  another  line 
of  endeavor,  leaving  the  curious  reader  in  ignorance, 
for  the  time  being,  of  the  causes  of  all  these  dis- 
asters. 

The    First    Experiment    of   the    Dufours 

A  great  and  well -laid  attempt  was  finally  made,  in 
Kentucky  and  Indiana,  to  establish  the  wine  grape  in 
America,  the  results  of  which  were  the  most  far-reach- 
ing of  any  single  experiment.  The  leader  of  this 
movement  was  John  James  Dufour,  a  Swiss.  When 
a  lad,  he  conceived  that  America 
offered  a  field  in  which  to  engage 
in  wine -making  with  profit.  Later 
in  life  he  was  imbued  with  the 
feeling  which  was  so  well  expressed 
by  Antill,  and  which  has  been  held 
by  many  another  since,  that  good 
wine  will  expel  the  stronger 

liquors.  "Then  that  offspring  of  fire  —  distilled 
liquor  —  so  corrosive  and  acerb  as  its  parent,"  he 
writes,  "which  crisps  the  heart  and  maketh  man  mad, 
will  be  left  for  the  poor  inhabitants  of  frozen  coun- 


22     THE  EVOLUTION  OF  OUR  NATIVE  FRUITS 

tries,  to  whom  both  grapes  and  apples  have  been  re- 
fused: and  if  this  my  humble  performance,  should 
contribute  to  bring  such  blessings  in  the  country,  I 
could  rejoice  to  have  quitted  my  first  home  to  come 
here."  Dufour  recites  the  reasons  for  his  coming  to 
America  in  his  "Vine  Dresser's  Guide,"  which  was 
published  in  1826:  "When  I  took  the  resolution  to 
come  to  America,  to  try  the  cultivation  of  the  grape 
I  was  but  fourteen;  and  I  came  to  this  determination 
by  reading  the  papers,  which  were  full  of  the  Ameri- 
can Revolutionary  War,  and  contained  many  letters 
from  the  officers  of  the  French  army  aiding  the  Re- 
publicans, which  complained  of  the  scarcity  of  the 
wine  among  them,  in  the  midst  of  the  greatest  abun- 
dance of  everything  else;  and  by  inspection  of  the 
maps,  I  saw  that  America  was  in  the  parallel  of  the 
best  wine  countries  in  the  world — like  Spain,  South  of 
France,  Italy  and  Greece  ;  I  then  made  the  culture  of 
the  grape,  of  its  natural  history,  and  of  all  that  was 
connected  with  it,  my  most  serious  study,  to  be  the 
better  able  to  succeed  here.  It  is  that  resolution 
which  made  me  a  vine  dresser,  although  some  may 
think  I  am  not  fit  for  it,  being  maimed  in  my  left 
arm.  It  was  it,  which  made  me  lose  several  chances 
of  getting  rich,  in  my  journeying  through  America, 
because  it  had  so  completely  absorbed  all  my  other 
thoughts;  and  it  was  also  that  resolution,  which  made 
me  accept  a  proposal  of  an  association  for  the  culture 
of  the  grape  in  Kentucky." 

The  Dufour  family  has  particular  interest  to  us, 
for  the  outcome  of  this  experiment  has  had  a  most 
important  bearing  upon  American  viticulture.  John 
James  Dufour,  the  father  of  the  subject  of  our  sketch, 


THE     DUFOURS  23 

lived  in  the  commune  of  Chatelard,  District  of  Vevay, 
Canton  de  Lemau  (now  de  Vaud),  Switzerland.  The 
family  was  French.  By  a  first  marriage  he  had  two 
sons,  John  James,  Jr.,  and  Daniel.  By  a  second  mar- 
riage, there  were  six  children,  Jeane  Marie,  Antoi- 
nette, John  Francis,  Susannah  Margaretta,  John 
David,  and  Aime.  John  James  Dufour,  the  son, 
married  in  Switzerland,  and  had  one  son,  Daniel  Vin- 
cent, but  the  wife  never  came  to  America.  The  pro- 
ject of  a  great  grape  commune  was  talked  over  and 
perfected  in  the  family  circle  in  Switzerland,  and 
finally  every  son  and  daughter  of  the  family,  the 
grandson,  and  a  few  associates,  cast  their  lots  in  the 
wilderness  of  the  New  World  to  work  out  a  livelihood 
for  themselves  and  a  mission  for  mankind.  Without 
further  mention  of  the  father  and  mother  in  the  home 
nest  in  Switzerland,  we  will  now  follow  the  fortunes 
of  John  James,  the  eldest  son,  and  of  his  associates. 
John  James  Dufour,  Second,  the  founder  of  the 
colony,  set  off  for  America  in  March,  1796.  He  took 
the  brig  "Sally"  for  Philadelphia  on  June  10,  and 
landed  in  the  New  World  August  12.  He  paid  $50, 
beside  baggage  charges,  for  his  passage.  For  two  or 
three  years,  Dufour  set  himself  to  preparation  for  his 
future  work  by  visiting  all  the  leading  vineyards  in 
the  country,  going  as  far  west  as  the  French  settle- 
ments at  Kaskaskia.  He  visited  the  estate  of  Jeffer- 
son, at  Monticello,  in  1799,  and  found  that  the  vine 
"had  been  abandoned,  or  left  without  any  care  for 
three  or  four  years  before,  which  proved,  evidently, 
that  it  had  not  been  profitable."  There  was  a  vine- 
yard on  the  estate  of  Mr.  Carroll,  at  Carrolltou,  below 
Baltimore,  where,  in  1796,  "they  had  tried  a  few  sorts 


24  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

of  the  jndigenous  grapes."  Near  the  Susquehanna 
River,  "not  far  from  Middletown,"  was  a  neglected 
vineyard  which  had  been  planted  by  a  German,  then 
deceased,  but  which  "had  produced  some  wine."  "At 
the  Southern  Liberties  of  Philadelphia"  Dufour  saw  a 
vineyard  in  1806  "of  a  large  assortment  of  the  best 
species  of  French  grapes."  These  were  two  and  three 
years  planted,  and  where  still  healthy.  At  Kaskaskia, 
on  the  Mississippi,  he  "found  only  the  spot  where  that 
vineyard  had  been  planted  in  a  well  selected  place,  on 
the  side  of  a  hill  to  the  north-east  of  the  town,  under 
a  cliff.  No  good  grapes,  however,  were  found  either 
there,  or  in  any  of  the  gardens  of  the  country.  A 
thick  forest  was  covering  that  spot,  with  a  luxuriant 
undergrowth,  and  of  asparagus  in  the  place  where 
the  Jesuits  had  planted  a  bed  of  that  vegetable." 

Dufour  had  found,  in  his  journey  down  the  Ohio, 
a  Frenchman  at  Marietta  "who  was  making  several 
barrels  of  wine  every  year,  out  of  grapes  that  were 
growing  wild,  and  abundantly,  on  the  heads  of  the 
Islands  of  the  Ohio  Eiver,  known  by  the  name  of 
Sand  grapes,  because  they  grow  best  on  the  gravels;" 
and  some  of  the  wine  made  from  the  indigenous 
grapes,  when  -four  months  old,  was  "like  the  wine 
produced  in  the  vicinity  of  Paris,  in  France,  if  not 
better."  The  French  settlers  were  convinced,  how- 
ever, that  these  grapes  were  not  natives,  but  that 
they  were  derived  from  the  old  French  stock  at  Fort 
Duquesne,  for  the  French  are  said  to  have  rooted  up 
their  vines  and  thrown  them  into  the  river  when  the 
English  took  the  fort.  There  seems  to  have  been  the 
strongest  prejudice  against  the  native  grapes,  a  feel- 
ing which  Dufour  shared,  as  we  shall  presently  see. 


THE    KENTUCKY    SOCIETY  25 

But  the  most  interesting  vineyard  which  this  inde- 
fatigable explorer  found  was  that  at  Spring  Mill,  on 
the  Schuylkill,  near  Philadelphia.  This  was  planted  by 
the  Frenchman,  Peter  Legaux — whom  M'Mahon  calls 
"a  gentleman  of  worth  and  science" — but  about  the 
close  of  the  century  it  was  taken  up  by  "a  wealthy 
Society  formed  by  subscription,"  in  Philadelphia,  and 
incorporated  by  the  legislature  of  Pennsylvania  "for 
the  promotion  of  the  culture  of  the  vine."  The  sec- 
retary of  this  Society  was  the  excellent  Bernard 
M'Mahon,  author  of  the  "American  Gardener's  Cal- 
endar," and  whom  every  botanist  and  nurseryman  re- 
calls in  the  Mahonia  barberries. 

Of  all  the  vines  which  Dufour  saw,  none  suf- 
ficed "to  pay  for  one  half  of  their  attendance"  save 
the  "vines  planted  in  the  gardens  of  New  York  and 
Philadelphia,  and  about  a  dozen  of  plants  in  the 
vineyard  of  Mr.  Legaux."  And  from  these  few 
plants  of  Legaux's,  under  Dufour's  care,  began  the 
most  important  experiment  in  American  grape  culture. 

Dufour  was  now  ready  to  locate  land  and  to  estab- 
lish the  proposed  grape  colony.  He  chose  a  location 
in  the  Great  Bend  of  the  Kentucky  River,  about 
twenty -five  miles  from  Lexington  by  the  present  pikes, 
and  thirteen'  miles  from  the  present  village  of  Nicholas- 
ville.  "The  Kentucky  Vineyard  Society"  appears  to 
have  been  established  under  his  inspiration.  He  says 
that  it  was  "an  association  for  the  culture  of  the  grape 
\n  Kentucky,  under  the  same  principles  of  the  one 
established  at  Philadelphia,  though  not  knowing,  how- 
ever, which  of  those  societies  had  been  the  first." 
This  organization  "may  be  with  great  propriety  con- 
sidered as  the  beginner,  the  true  introducer  of  the 


26  THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

cultivation  of  grape  vines  into  the  United  States ; 
although  it  proved  to  be  a  ruinous  affair,  both  to  the 
shareholders  and  their  vine  dresser — nevertheless  mil- 
lions will  accrue  to  the  country  at  large,  from  the 
school  made  there."  Dufour  mentions  himself  as  one 
of  the  "loosers  in  that  undertaking;"  and  he  says 
that  when  he  "first  came  to  Lexington,"  he  was  solic- 
ited to  make  "a  trial  on  the  cultivation  of  the  grape," 
but  "was  left  with  little  courage  by  what  I  had  seen 
done."  "They  offered  to  help,"  and  a  scheme  of 
operation  was  completed.  The  planting  at  Spring 
Mill,  near  Philadelphia,  was  made  earlier,  for  Dufour 
"saw  that  Vineyard  in  1796,  1799,  and  1806,"  but  the 
association  which  finally  took  it  in  charge  seems  to 
have  been  formed  in  1798  or  1799.  The  Kentucky 
association  must  have  been  organized  in  1798,  for  in 
January,  1799,  Dufour  went  to  Philadelphia  and  pro- 
cured, for  the  Kentucky  place,  10,000  grape  vines  and 
some  fruit  trees.  These,  including  the  transportation 
to  Pittsburg,  cost  $461.  Spooner,  however,  states 
in  his  grape  book  in  1846,  that  "in  1793,  Peter  Legaux, 
a  French  gentleman,  obtained  of  the  legislature  of 
Pennsylvania  the  incorporation  of  a  company  for  cul- 
tivating the  vine,"  and  that  "for  one  year  only  pros- 
pects were  favorable;  but  divisions  and  dissentions 
arose,  and  the  stockholders  sold  out  in  disgust,  and 
the  vineyard  went  to  ruin."  But  Dufour  saw  the 
vineyard  in  1806,  and  he  bought  vines  there  in  1799, 
so  that  Spooner 's  chronology  is  open  to  doubt. 

The  Kentucky  association  was  organized  with  $10,- 
000  capital.  There  were  200  shares  at  $50  each,  and 
forty  shares  were  given  Dufour  as  "salary  to  conduct 
the  business,  until  it  would  become  productive."  The 


THE  KENTUCKY  ORGANIZATION          27 

land  was  purchased  of  William  Hazelrigg,  who  pat- 
ented it  from  the  government  on  or  about  1785. 
When  the  vineyard  should  come  into  bearing,  Dufour 
was  to  receive  $1,000  a  year  out  of  the  produce,  or 
nothing  if  there  should  be  no  produce.  The  160  re- 
maining shares  were  to  be  appropriated  as  follows: 

For  633  acres  of  land  . $633  00 

For  5  families  of  negroes 5,000  00 

For  tools,  victuals,  and  other  support  .    .    .    1,000  00 

Expenses  of  getting  vine  scions 800  00 

Incidental  expenses 567  00 

$8,000  00 

The  full  number  of  shares  was  not  taken,  and  the 
concern  set  out  in  the  spring  of  1799  with  five  acres 
planted  to  thirty -five  varieties,  many  or  most  of 
which  were  obtained  from  Legaux. 

The  affair  being  now  fully  on  its  feet,  the  re- 
maining members  of  the  Dufour  family  were  ready 
to  join  the  enterprise.  On  New  Year's  Day,  1801, 
the  adventurers  came  together  in  Switzerland,  and 
prepared  to  take  leave  of  home  and  country.  Seven- 
teen souls  set  sail  in  early  spring  upon  a  voyage 
which  lasted  100  days.  They  landed  in  Norfolk  in 
May.  In  this  company  were  the  seven  remaining 
Du fours,  Jean  Daniel  Mererod  (who,  either  in  Europe 
or  America,  married  Antoinette  Dufour) ,  Francis 
Louis  de  Siebenthal,  John  Francis  de  Siebenthal  and 
Philip  Bettens,  together  with  women  and  children. 
They  crossed  the  Alleghanies  to  Pittsburg  with 
wagons,  the  women  and  children  who  could  not 
walk,  going  as  freight,  at  so  much  per  hundred 
pounds.  At  Pittsburg,  the  colonists  took  boats  on 
the  Ohio,  and  set  their  faces  toward  that  wild  and 


28  THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

rugged  country  which  had  been  so  recently  the 
theater  of  Daniel  Boone's  adventures. 

The  party  arrived  at  the  vineyard  on  the  6th  of 
July,  1801.  There  the  colonists,  fresh  from  the  snug 
and  well -tilled  fields  of  Switzerland,  saw  a  raw  river 
bottom,  rolling  gradually  up  to  rocky  and  wooded 
hills,  which  slope  away  to  the  south  and  southeast, 
and  upon  which  the  new  vineyard  was  growing.  In 
the  foreground  was  a  log  cabin.  But  they  were 
full  of  hope,  and  fell  to  work  with  much  good -will. 
The  brothers  had  brought  grape  vines  from  home, 
and  these,  with  loving  solicitude,  were  planted  with 
the  vines  which  had  been  procured  in  Philadelphia 
by  the  founder.  "Three  years  we  were  in  full  ex- 
pectation, and  worked  with  great  courage,"  writes 
John  James  Dufour  ;  "  — a  great  many  species  of  vines 
showed  fruit  the  third  year  ;  one  vine  of  the  Sweet 
Water  was  full  of  eminently  good  grapes,  fully 
ripened  by  the  first  of  September.  A  few  bunches 
that  I  carried  to  Lexington,  were  admired  beyond 
anything.  But  alas !  it  was  the  first  and  last  year 
that  that  vine  ever  bore  fruit,  a  sickness  took  hold 
of  all  our  vines  except  the  few  stocks  of  Cape  and 
Madeira  grapes,  from  each  of  which  we  made  the 
fourth  year  some  wine,  which  was  drank  by  the 
Shareholders  in  Lexington  in  March  next." 

A  good  contemporaneous  account  of  the  Dufour 
vineyard  is  given  by  the  distinguished  Frenchman, 
Francois  Andre  Michaux,  who  visited  the  place  in 
August,  1802,  in  his  second  journey  in  America.  "At 
fourteen  miles  from  Lexington,"  he  writes  in  his  Trav- 
els, "I  quitted  the  road  to  Hickman's  ferry:  I  turned 
to  the  left,  and  lost  myself  in  the  middle  of  the  woods, 


MICHAUX'S    TESTIMONY  29 

so  that  I  did  not  reach  the  vineyard  until  evening, 
where  I  was  very  politely  received  by  M.  Dufour,  who 
directs  the  undertaking.  He  invited  me  to  sleep  there, 
and  pass  the  following  day  with  him,  which  I  accep- 
ted." "The  spot  which  he  has  selected  and  cleared  is 
situated  on  the  river  Kentucky,  twenty  miles  from 
Lexington.  The  soil  is  excellent,  and  the  vines  are 
planted  on  a  small  hill,  with  a  steep  declivity,  exposed 
to  the  south,  and  the  base  of  which  is  two  hundred 
toises*  from  the  river."  "But  his  success  is  not  equal 
to  his  attention:  not  more  than  four  or  five  varieties 
are  left,  among  which  are  those  which  he  calls  by  the 
names  of  Burgundy  and  Madeira,  and  the  first  does 
not  thrive  well:  the  fruit  always  rots  before.it  arrives 
at  maturity.  When  I  saw  them,  the  bunches  were 
few  and  stinted,  the  grapes  small,  and  everything 
appeared  as  though  the  vintage  of  the  year  1802 
would  not  be  more  abundant  than  those  of  the  pre- 
ceding years.  The  Madeira  vines,  on  the  contrary, 
seemed  to  give  some  hopes:  of  a  hundred  and  fifty, 
or  two  hundred  plants,  about  a  third  were  loaded  with 
very  fine  grapes.  These  vines  do  not  occupy  a  space 
of  more  than  six  acres;  they  are  planted  and  sup- 
ported by  props,  as  in  the  environs  of  Paris.  The 
vicinity  of  the  wood  attracts  a  species  of  bird,  which 
is  very  destructive  among  them,  and  the  nature  of  the 
country  is  a  great  obstacle  to  getting  freed  from  them. 
Such  was  then  the  situation  of  this  establishment,  in 
which  the  proprietors  took  but  a  slight  interest,  and 
which  was  likely  to  meet  with  another  hinderance  in 
the  division  of  M.  Dufour's  family,  a  part  of  which 
was  on  the  point  of  quitting  it  to  settle  on  the  banks 

*A  toise  is  about  6|  feet. 


30  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

of  the  Ohio.  These  details  are  sufficient  to  give  a 
very  different  idea  of  the  state  of  the  pretended  flour- 
ishing vines  of  Kentucky,  from  that  which  may  have 
been  formed  on  the  pompous  accounts  of  them  pub- 
lished some  months  ago  in  the  public  papers." 

The  subscribers  to  the  vineyard  company  soon 
became  disheartened  and  failed  to  meet  their  engage- 
ments, the  available  stock  was  used  in  paying  for  the 
labor  which  had  been  -employed  in  the  plantation,  and 
the  further  prosecution  of  the  enterprise  rested  upon 
three  brothers  Dufour,  the  other  members  of  the 
colony  having  sought  a  new  location  on  the  banks  of 
the  Ohio,  in  Indiana.  Every  effort  was  made  to  in- 
crease the  stock  of  the  Cape  and  Madeira  grapes,  the 
only  varieties  which  had  escaped  the  fatal  sickness. 
John  James  Dufour  returned  to  Europe  in  1806,  and 
left  the  establishment  in  the  hands  of  his  younger 
brothers.  In  his  absence  the  second  war  with  Eng- 
land broke  out,  and  he  was  delayed  in  returning  until 
1816.  He  found  the  "vineyard  grown  up  with  briars." 
The  brothers  had  become  discouraged,  chiefly  because 
one  crop  had  been  destroyed  by  a  frosty  spring,  and 
"had  abandoned  the  place  to  an  American  tenant, 
who  supposed  we  had  a  bad  title  to  the  land."  The 
intruder  was  ejected  by  due  process  of  law.  John 
James  had  appointed  his  half-brother,  John  Francis, 
his  attorney  on  the  15th  of  January,  1806.  The  col-, 
ony  was  at  this  time  practically  abandoned,  although 
all  the  land  did  not  pass  out  of  the  family  until  at 
least  twenty -five  years  later.  Upon  returning  to 
America,  John  James  Dufour  wrote  "The  American 
Vine  Dresser's  Guide,  being  a  treatise  on  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  vine,  and  the  process  of  wine  making. 


DUFOUR'S   BOOK  31 

Adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate  of  the  United 
States."  Upon  the  title-page  he  speaks  of  himself 
as  "formerly  of  Swisserland,  and  now  an  American 
citizen,  cultivator  of  the  vine  from  his  childhood, 
and  for  the  last  twenty -five  years  occupied  in  that 
line  of  business,  first  in  Kentucky,  and  now  on  the 
borders  of  the  Ohio,  near  Vevay,  Indiana."  The  book 
was  printed  in  Cincinnati  in  1826,  by  S.  J.  Browne. 
The  author  set  out  to  distribute  his  book  to  friends 
in  Kentucky,  but  took  sick  on  the  journey,  and  re- 
turned to  the  new  settlement  at  Vevay,  where  he 
died  early  in  1827.  John  Francis  Dufour  resigned 
his  office  of  Associate  Judge  in  1827,  in  order  that 
he  might  give  his  attention  to  the  administration  of 
his  brother's  estate.  In  1828,  we  find  John  James's 
son,  Daniel  Vincent,  who  had  come  to  America  when 
he  reached  his  majority,  selling  seventy -five  acres 
of  the  old  vineyard  tract  to  Michael  Salter  for  two 
and  a -half  dollars  an  acre.  The  land  was  not 
deeded  to  Salter,  however,  until  April  23rd,  1831, 
when  he  had  paid  a  note  which  was  given  in 
partial  settlement  for  the  land.  The  land  upon  which 
the  vineyard  and  buildings  stood  is  now  the  property 
of  George  McQuery,  whose  grandfather  is  said  to 
have  procured  it  from  the  Dufours  in  1828. 

The  traveler  who  visits  the  spot  to-day  finds  an 
open  glebe  stretching  from  the  Kentucky  River  to  the 
hills  (Fig.  3).  Upon  this  lowland  he  will  see  a 
clump  of  bushes  and  poke -weeds,  and  a  few  stones 
(Fig.  4),  marking  the  site  of  the  old  log  house, 
which  perished  about  1845  to  1850.  Near  by  is  a 
broken  and  hollow  pear  tree  (Fig.  5),  three  feet  in 
diameter,  which  tradition  says  was  brought  from 


THE    LANDMARKS  33 

Europe  by  the  Dufours.  This  tree,  which  bears  a 
Summer  Bell  pear,  still  gives  an  annual  crop  of 
its  indifferent  fruit.  Just  beyond  is  the  hillside 
where  the  plantings  were  made,  and  the  remnant  of 
a  stone  wall  marks  one  of  the  boundaries  of  the 
vineyard.  The  hillsides  are  covered  with  red  cedars, 
with  now  and  then  a 
honey  locust,  and  the 
open  places  support  a  'Jfj 
bountiful  crop  of  mul- 
leius  and  teasels.  The 
slopes  are  very  rocky,  * 

the      Outcrop      in       lower  Fig-4-    Site  of  the  house  at  "First 

.  Vineyard."    1895. 

levels      being     Trenton 

limestone,  and  in  the  higher  courses  the  lower  and 
middle  Hudson  sandstones.  This  hillside,  where  once 
the  vine  was  planted  with  prophetic  hope,  is  now  a 
sheep  pasture ;  and  only  tradition  remains  to  recall 
the  struggles  and  the  disappointments  of  a  noble 
band  of  pioneers  whose  labor,  though  fruitless  to 
themselves,  was  fraught  with  blessings  for  the  years 
to  come. 

The  Second  Experiment  of  the  DH fours 

Although  wine  had  been  made  in  the  Kentucky 
vineyard  for  two  or  three  years,  it  was  evident  to  the 
colonists  that  the  enterprise  was  doomed  to  failure. 
A  fatal  sickness  had  overtaken  the  vines.  In  1802, 
certain  of  the  colony  sought  a  new  location.  Going 
down  the  Kentucky  River  to  its  mouth,  they  ascended 
the  Ohio  for  a  few  miles,  and  chose  the  bottom  of  the 
rich  and  gently  rising  valley  of  what  is  now  the 

C 


THE     EVOLUTION     OF     OUR     NATIVE     FRUITS 


pretty  little  city  of  Vevay,  Indiana.  This  spot  is 
about  45  miles  below  Cincinnati.  The  colonists  still 
held  the  vineyard  in  Kentucky,  and  cultivated  it  hope- 
fully until  1804,  and  some  of  the  party  did  not  leave 
it  even  then.  But  all  eyes  were  turned  to  the  north. 

The  settlers  not  only 
thought  that  the 
new  location  was  the 
better  one  for  the 
grape,  but  tradition 
says  that  they  chafed 
under  the  presence 
of  slavery,  and  de- 
sired to  escape  it. 

John  James  Du- 
four  petitioned  Con- 
gress to  pass  an  act 
authorizing  him  and 
his  associates  to 
enter  upon  lands, 
with  an  extended 
credit,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  introducing 
the  culture  of  the 
vine  into  the  United 
States.  ^  Congress 
responded,  and  on 
May  1st,  1802, 
authorized  them  to  select  four  sections  of  land  on  a 
credit  of  twelve  years.  The  settlers  selected  2,500 
acres,  and  called  the  place  New  Switzerland.  The 
country  was  a  dense  wilderness.  There  were  very 
few  settlers  in  the  region.  The  first  settler  within 


tig.  5.     Old  pear  tree  on  site  of  « First  Vineyart 
plantation.    1895. 


»  " 

I? 

fi- 
ll 

13 


^  p 

If 


I 

»  s 

.11 


36 


THE     EVOLUTION     OF     OUR    NATIVE     FRUITS 


the  limits  of  the  present  county  of  Switzerland  was 
Heathcoat  Picket,  who  established  himself  there  in 
1795.  The  objects  of  the  grant,  as  stated  in  the  act, 
were  "to  plant  the  vine  and  make  their  principal  busi- 
ness its  cultivation."  The  parties  to  the  covenant 
were  John  James  Dufour,  Daniel  Dufour,  John  Francis 
Dufour,  David  Dufour,  Aime  Dufour,  Daniel  Vincent 

Dufour  (son  of  John 
James),  Jeane  Marie 
Dufour,  Antoinette 
Dufour,  Susannah 
Margarita  Dufour, 
Francis  Louis  de 
Siebenthal,  John 
Francis  de  Sieben- 
thal, Jean  Daniel 
Mererod,  and  Philip 
Bettens.  The  lands 
at  New  Switzerland 
were  divided  into 
thirteen  lots,  to  ac- 
commodate the  dif- 
ferent members  of  the 
colony.  The  method 
of  division  was  as 
follows:  "The  said 
lands  being  on  the 
Ohio  River,  and  be- 
ing surveyed  diag- 
onally with  the  Eiver,  it  is  agreed  that  each  lot 
shall  meet  the  River  and  its  breadth  upon  the 
River  shall  be  as  follows:  The  most  western  or 
No.  1,  67  poles;  No.  2,  65  poles;  No.  3,  63  poles, 


Fig.  7.     Jean  Dauiel  Mererod.     (Sketch  made 
about  1825.) 


THE    INDIANA    EXPERIMENT  37 

and  so  on".  This  decreasing  width  offset  the  increas- 
ing lengths  towards  the  east.  The  2,500  acres  were 
in  this  manner  divided  into  thirteen  equal  portions  of 
a  trifle  over  192  acres  each.  The  first  lot,  on  the 
west,  fell  to  Francis  Louis  de  Siebenthal,  No.  2  to 
Philip  Betteus,  No.  3  to  Jean  Daniel  Mererod,  and 
No.  4  to  John  Francis  de  Siebenthal.  The  remain- 
ing nine  were  allotted  to  the  Dufours. 

It  was  provided  that  "in  order  to  indemnify  the 
family  of  the  Dufours  of  the  cost  and  trouble  they 
have  been  at  (at  least  John  James  Dufour)  by  travel- 
ing in  the  United  States  to  choose  a  convenient  place 
of  settlement,  and  presenting  a  petition  to  Congress, 
it  shall  be  given  him  or  family  the  sum  of  $100  for 
each  lot,  to  be  paid  before  the  1st  of  January,  1812, 
diminishing  six  per  cent  unto  the  day  of  payment, 
upon  the  sum  that  shall  have  been  paid  before  that 
time.  As  security  of  the  said  covenant  each  of  us 
engages  the  whole  of  his  property,  present  and  here- 
after, and  in  witness  put  his  name  and  seal  this  20th 
of  January,  1803,  at  First  Vineyard  [Kentucky]." 

It  appears  to  have  been  in  1803  that  the  first 
settlement  was  made  by  the  colony  at  New  Switzer- 


land. John  Francis  Dufour  is  looked  upon  as  the 
real  founder  and  leader  of  this  colony,  although  he 
did  not  remove  there  until  1809.  He  was  a  man  of 
great  enterprise  and  ability,  and  he  left  an  indelible 
impress  upon  the  people  and  institutions  of  Vevay,  as 


38  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

the  colony  of  New  Switzerland  was  afterwards  and  is 
at  present  called.  He  died  June  6,  1850. 

In  this  new  location,  the  vines  and  fruit  trees  were 
planted  on  the  bottom  lands  which  slope  gradually  up 
from  the  Ohio.  The  labor  of  clearing  the  land  and 
the  haste  for  results  were  so  great  that  the  land  was 
not  plowed  previous  to  the  setting  of  the  vines.  "The 
Swissers  on  the  borders  of  the  Ohio,"  wrote  John 
James  Dufour,  "having  the  ground  to  clear  from  a 
heavy  forest  of  extraordinary  big  poplar  [tulip -tree] 
and  beech  trees,  and  depending  only  on  their  own 
labor,  did  not  prepare  their  ground  according  to  the 
aforesaid  rules,  but  satisfied  themselves,  by  digging  a 
hole  for  each  vine  the  same  as  for  any  other  tree, 
about  -twelve  or  fifteen  inches  in  diameter,  with  the 
same  depth,  and  it  being  filled  with  the  top  earth, 
they  stuck  the  scion  in  the  middle  of  it."  "The  first 
vineyard  planted  on  the  borders  of  the  Ohio,  was  dis- 
tanced six  feet  by  two  and  a  half  feet,  it  has  been 
worn  out  in  sixteen  years  ;  on  the  spot,  there  is  now 
[1826]  young  vines  growing,  since  three  years."  The 
first  wine  at  Vevay  was  made  in  1806  or  1807.  The 
vintage  in  1808  was  800  gallons,  and  in  1809  about 
1,200  gallons. 

One  of  the  best  cultivators  in  the  little  colony  was 
Jean  Daniel  Mererod  (Fig.  7),  whose  wife  was  An- 
toinette Dufour.  It  was  probably  Mererod  who  made 
the  first  wine  at  the  new  settlement.  His  place  may 
still  be  seen  (Fig.  8),  with  the  old  wine  cellar  and 
the  ponderous  wine -press ;  and  a  few  rods  in  front 
of  it  rolls  the  mighty  torrent  of  the  Ohio.  At  one 
place  a  grape  stock  persists,  which,  although  cut  off 
and  abused  year  after  year,  still  throws  out  its  shoots 


AT    VEVAY 


39 


in  memory  of  other  days.  In  the  year  1895,  the 
writer  partook  of  its  fruit,  which  was  clearly  that 
of  the  Catawba  ;  and  so  the  vine  could  not  have 
been  one  of  the  original  plantation,  as  tradition  as- 
serts it  to  be.  Aime,  son  of  the  Mererods,  a  hale  and 
reminiscent  man  of  eighty  years,  is  now  (1895)  the 
sole  survivor  of  the  grape  -growing  era  of  the  col- 
ony. He  lives  at  Vevay,  where  he  is  the  oracle  of 
local  history. 

Nearly  a  mile  in  the  rear  of  the  main  thoroughfare 
which  follows  the  river,  and  part  way  up  the  sharp 
declivity  of  the  skirting  bluff,  the  house  of  John 


••    .y.£.-:;.  . ^:?-:^^ i**--- 

.. 

^^*^  -^' 


Site  of  one  of  the  original  vineyards  (Jean  Daniel  Mererod), 
at  Vevay,  1895. 

Francis  Dufour  still  stands,  in  good  repair  (Fig.  9). 
The  original  house,  which  he  built  in  1809,  was  made 
of  logs,  and  has  perished,  but  the  present  structure 
was  built  in  the  very  early  days.  A  grandson  of 
John  Francis  Dufour,  and  himself  a  gray -haired 
man,  is  now  a  prominent  figure  in  Vevay. 


40 


THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 


Grape -growing,  as  a  business,  has  long  since  per- 
ished at  Vevay.  The  vines  took  sick  and  would  not 
bear;  or  if  they  bore,  the  fruit  rotted  before  it  was 
ready  for  the  harvest.  Only  one  variety,  known  as 
the  Cape  grape,  gave  any  important  return.  On  the 


Fig.  9.    Stone  house  of  John  Francis  Dufour,  Vevay,  Indiana.    1895. 

27th  of  May,  1832  or  1833,  a  killing  frost  ruined  most 
of  the  remaining  vineyards,  and  the  Catawba,  which 
was  justly  becoming  famous,  was  set  in  the  place  of 
the  old  varieties.  But  even  this  took  the  disease,  and 
grape -growing  there  soon  entered  into  a  decline,  from 
which  it  has  never  recovered. 


DEATH    OF    DUFOUR  41 

John  Jaines  Dufour's  wife  died,  in  Switzerland, 
in  1823.  The  half  of  her  estate,  which,  by  the  laws 
of  that  country,  fell  to  her  son,  David  Vincent,  was 
transferred  to  the  father  in  exchange  for  the  latter's 
property,  which  consisted  of  personal  property,  a 
town  lot,  29  acres  in  one  parcel  and  605  acres  in 
another  in  Vevay  and  neighborhood,  and  a  half  right, 
in  partnership  with  John  Francis  Dufour,  of  keeping 
a  ferry  across  the  Ohio  River.  It  is  evident  that 
John  James  Dufour  intended  to  return  to  Switzerland 
to  pass  his  declining  years,  but  he  was  overtaken 
before  the  purpose  was  accomplished,  and  his  tomb 
was  made  in  Indiana.  The  remains  were  first  in- 
terred at  Florence,  Indiana,  but  were  later  removed 
to  the  family  farm  lot  seven  miles  above  Vevay ; 
and  here  the  wanderer  may  to  this  day  read  the  in- 
scription on  the  tombstone: 

Here 

Is  deposited  the  remains  of  John  James  Dufour, 

A  native  of  the  Canton  of  Vaud,  Switzerland, 

Who  departed  this  life 

February  9th,  1827, 

Aged  64  years. 

Remember  man  as  you  pass  by 
That  as  you  are  now  so  once  was  I; 
But  as  I  am  soon  you  must  be; 
Prepare  for  death  and  follow  me. 

Dufour  must  have  been  possessed  of  unusual  intel- 
ligence, forethought  and  perseverance.  He  was  a 
pioneer,  and  he  gave  his  life  to  prove  that  the  wine 
grape  cannot  be  grown  in  eastern  North  America. 
Out  of  the  ruin  of  his  hopes  there  had  sprung,  even 
before  his  death,  the  branch  of  promise,  but  he  had 
not  fully  perceived  its  worth.  It  needed  another  cast 


42  THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

of  mind,  one  born  outside  European  environments 
and  the  traditions  of  the  wine -press,  to  discern  the 
fact  that  America  was  destined  to  give  to  the  world  a 
new  type  of  grape. 

The  Branch  of  Promise 

We  have  seen  that  both  in  Kentucky  and  Indiana 
one  or  two  varieties  of  grapes  had  escaped  the  sickness, 
and  had  given  fairly  good  returns.  The  varieties 
which  are  mentioned  as  successful  are  the  Burgundy, 
Madeira  and  Cape.  We  have  no  knowledge  of  what 
these  Burgundy  and  Madeira  grapes  were,  but  they 
were  probably  not  of  European  origin.  It  is  prob- 
able that  they  were  offshoots  of  some  native  grape 
which  had  somewhere  been  impressed  into  cultivation. 
They  seem  to  have  attracted  little  attention,  how- 
ever, and  were  soon  lost,  so  that  their  history  need 
not  be  pursued  farther. 

But  the  Cape  grape  persisted,  and  eventually 
became  the  leading  grape  at  Vevay.  Airne  Mere  rod 
remembers  it,  and  still  wonders  what  its  origin  may 
have  been.  It  has  turned  out  that  this  grape  was  the 
beginning  of  successful  American  grape  culture,  and 
we  must  inquire  into  its  history.  Dufour  obtained  the 
variety  from  Legaux,  at  Philadelphia.  Legaux  "certi- 
fied having  received  them  from  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,"  as  Dufour  says,  and  Dufour  and  his  compan- 
ions called  it  the  Cape  grape.  In  M'Mahon's  account, 
in  1806,  of  some  of  the  vines  "under  trial  at  the 
Spring  Hill  Vineyard,"  however,  there  is  no  variety 
which  answers  to  this.  It  is  evident  that  Legaux's 
company  placed  little  estimation  upon  this  grape;  and 


THE    CAPE    GRAPE  43 

when    the   imported   varieties   failed,    the   project  was 
apparently  abandoned. 

This  Cape  grape  appears  to  have  been  really  an 
offshoot  of  the  wild  fox -grape,  or  Vitis  Labrusca, 
and  it  is,  therefore,  the  forerunner  of  the  varieties 
which  we  now  cultivate  everywhere  in  our  vineyards. 
It  was  also  known  as  the  Schuylkill  Muscadel  and 
Clifton's  Constantia.  These  names  are  kept  distinct 
by  Adlum,  the  earliest  writer  upon  the  native  grape, 
who  declared  that  it  was  the  Constantia  which  was 
grown  by  Mr.  Legaux,  and  which  was  "foisted  on  the 
public  as  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  grape."  The  Con- 
stantia came  up  in  William  Clifton's  garden,  in  Phil- 
adelphia, "by  chance,  *  *  *  as  it  never  was 
planted  or  sown  by  him,  or  any  of  his  family."  The 
Muscadel  type  "was  found  growing  near  Schuylkill 
River,  by  a  Mr.  Alexander,  the  gardener  to  one  of  the 
Mr.  Penns,  while  Governor  of  Pennsylvania,  before 
the  American  Revolution."  Johnson,  in  1806,  fol- 
lowing the  opinions  of  Legaux,  speaks  of  the  Con- 
stantia as  coming  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
and  of  the  Alexander  as  a  grape  "found  in  many 
parts  of  the  middle  states,  and  most  probably  in  the 
northern  if  not  in  the  southern."  Whether  the 
Alexander  and  Constantia  were  really  identical,  as 
modern  writers  affirm,  will  probably  never  be  known; 
but  I  strongly  suspect  that  they  represent  two  natu- 
ral but  very  similar  varieties.  The  Cape  grape  is 
now  known  in  the  books  under  the  name  of  Alex- 
ander.* 

*It  is  strange,  however,  that  a  specimen  in  the  herbarium  of  the  Phila. 
Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  labeled  "Trasker's  or  Alexander  grape,"  and  said  to  have 
been  collected  by  Nuttall,  is  Vitis  cinereai  but  the  labels  must  have  been 
shifted  in  the  progress  of  time. 


44  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

It  had  been  declared  in  Dufour's  time  that  the 
Cape  grape  was  really  an  offshoot  of  the  wild  grape 
of  the  Atlantic  slope,  but  Dufour  was  so  strongly 
prejudiced  against  the  native  grapes  that  he  would 
never  admit  such  an  origin,  although  he  was  ready 
to  admit  the  good  qualities  of  the  variety.  "The  Cape 
grape,"  he  says,  "has  been  slandered  and  cryed  down 
to  a  mere  wild  grape.  It  is  true,  that  it  is  a  very 
coarse  grape,  unfit  for  table  use,  for  those  who  have 
eaten  the  best  sort  in  Europe,  or  who  can  get  a 
better  one.  It  has  a  very  thick  skin  and  pulp,  but 
the  juice  is  very  sweet  when  perfectly  ripe  and  has 
the  taste  of  the  strawberry,  which  gives  a  fine  per- 
fume to  the  wine;  such  as  made  the  President  Jeffer- 
son say,  that  there  was  no  other  such  tasted  wine 
within  his  knowledge  in  the  world."  This  "fine  per- 
fume," which  in  Dufour's  judgment  disproved  any 
plebeian  American  origin,  is  the  very  "foxiness"  which 
all  modern  grape -growers  associate  with  the  native 
grapes,  and  which  they  are  seeking  to  breed  out  of 
them. 

But  while  Dufour  was  determined  to  "try  to  save 
the  character  of  our  Cape  grapes  from  being  made 
merely  wild  grapes,"  he  was  nevertheless  convinced 
that  it  was  "a  very  precious  plant  to  the  United 
States."  Dufour  had  the  privilege  of  appearing 
before  Mr.  Legaux's  association  in  Philadelphia  in 
1806,  and  of  explaining  to  the  "very  numerous"  mem- 
bers the  partial  success  of  the  grape  projects  in  the 
West,  although  it  was  from  the  Legaux  vineyard  itself 
that  the  westerners  had  obtained  their  plants.  "I  briefly 
answered,"  he  says,  "that  all  the  mystery  of  our  suc- 
cess consisted  in  nursing  only  the  vines  that  were 


DUFOUR'S  RETROSPECT  45 

prosperous,  no  matter  how  good  or  how  bad  their 
fruit  was;  for  I  was  fully  of  the  opinion,  that  no 
other  existing  this  side  of  the  Atlantic,  would  ever 
remunerate  for  the  trouble  of  attendance;  that  the 
Cape  grape  was  the  only  one  reared  by  the  Swiss 
settlers;  that  it  was  a  hardy  and  thrifty  plant,  giving 
regular  if  not  large  crops  of  grapes,  equal  to  a 
majority  of  the  French  vineyards;  according  to  Chap- 
tal's  account — making  a  good  wine  inferior  but  to  a 
minority  of  the  European  wines,  and  that  it  rewarded 
its.  cultivator  if  industrious,  as  well  as  any  other 
American  produce."  It  was  of  this  variety  that 
Dufour  made  what  he  called  his  "subsequent  and 
prosperous  plantation"  on  the  Ohio,  and  it  is  presum- 
ably the  one  with  which  the  religious  community  of 
the  Harmonists,  on  the  lower  Wabash,  in  Indiana, 
also  made  a  successful  venture  in  grape -growing. 

Having  had  this  successful  experience  upon  the 
Ohio,  Dufour  indulges  in  a  retrospect  of  what  might 
have  been  the  success  of  the  Kentucky  vineyard,  if 
his  associates  had  not  abandoned  the  enterprise  when 
he  was  in  Europe:  "Now  let  us  see  the  difference, 
if  we  had  punctually  followed  the  plan,  and  began 
first  by  the  collection  of  $8,000,  and  the  purchase 
of  5  families  of  negroes,  for  five  thousand  dollars,  we 
could  then  have  had  from  15  to  20  head,  big  and 
small,  I  could  certainly  have  procured  by  our  joint 
labor,  enough  to  support  us  all,  after  the  second  year, 
besides  planting  as  many  vines  as  we  have  done; 
and  although  the  first  planting  had  failed,  we  would 
surely,  in  1809  or  1810,  have  at  least  20  acres  of 
bearing  vines  of  the  Cape  grapes,  which,  at  the 
average  of  180  gallons  per  acre,  as  that  is  the  pro- 


46  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

duct  on  the  Ohio,  would  give  about  15  gallons  per 
share,  besides  paying  what  was  coming  to  me.  The 
wine  then  fetched  $2  per  gallon,  and  the  vineyard 
would  have  been  yearly  increasing.  By  this  time, 
with  only  common  good  luck  among  the  slaves,  there 
would  be  at  least  thirty  able  hands  of  both  sexes, 
besides  a  great  many  youngsters,  with  whom  I  could 
tend  100  acres  of  vineyards,  besides  raising  enough 
for  the  support  of  all,  at  180  gallons  per  acre,  would 
give  85  gallons  per  share,  worth  as  many  dollars 
besides  my  reserve ;  and  the  capital  stock  would  be 
worth  about  tenfold.  Those  who  doubt  the  afore- 
said calculation,  have  only  to  come  and  see  our  vine- 
yards and  vintage  on  the  Ohio,  and  calculate  for 
themselves."  Dufour  writes  in  the  tone  of  the  advo- 
cate. He  is  apologetic  for  the  failures  of  the  exper- 
iments and  exultant  over  the  success  with  the  Cape 
grape;  but  he  appears  not  to  have  caught  the  inspira- 
tion that  this  very  Cape  grape  was  the  beginning  and 
prophecy  of  a  new  type  of  fruit. 

Wine  was  made  from  the  Cape  grape,  although 
the  variety  was  not  a  wine  grape  ;  that  is,  it  would 
not  attract  attention  in  the  presence  of  successfully 
grown  European  wine  grapes.  Adlum  described  it 
in  1823  as  "a  deep  purple  approaching  to  black  ;  it 
is  recommended  by  some  for  the  table ;  it  has  a 
pulp  in  it,  is  a  great  bearer,  and  makes  a  good 
Wine."  William  Bartram,  in  1804,  in  his  account 
of  "American  Grapes"  in  the  "Medical  Repository," 
speaks  of  the  Alexander  type  as  follows :  "  Before 
they  are  quite  ripe,  some  think  they  possess  a  little 
of  the  stingy  flavour  of  the  fox -grape,  but  my  taste 
never  could  discover  it.  It  has  been  supposed  to  be 


LONGWORTH    ON    THE    CAPE    GRAPE  47 

a  hybrid  between  Vitis  sylvestris  (common  bunch 
grape)  and  Vitis  vinifera,  because  it  was  found 
on  the  rocky  hills  near  the  Schuylkill,  above  the 
upper  ferry,  in  the  neighborhood  of  an  old  vine- 
yard of  European  grapes:  but  I  believe  it  to  be 
an  American."  The  variety  was  never  widely  dis- 
seminated, and  it  is  unknown  to  the  present  gene- 
ration. It  had  nearly  passed  out  of  cultivation  by 
1850,  and  it  was  probably  not  planted  to  any  ex- 
tent for  ten  years  before  that  time.  It  was  driven 
out  by  the  Catawba,  which  was  "almost  the  only 
variety  planted"  in  the  Cincinnati  grape  region  in 
1850,  according  to  Robert  Buchanan ;  and  from 
that  time  until  now  there  has  been  a  competition 
and  succession  of  varieties, — an  indubitable  proof 
of  progress  or  evolution. 

It  should  be  said,  however,  that  the  Cape  grape 
did  not  pass  from  cultivation  wholly  because  of  lack 
of  merit  for  wine,  but  partly  because  the  wine  was 
too  sour  unless  it  was  artificially  sweetened.  In 
1845,  Nicholas  Longworth  declared  in  his  pamphlet 
upon  "The  Cultivation  of  the  Grape,"  that  "the  Cape 
is  generally  free  from  rot,  and  bears  and  ripens  well, 
and  makes  a  better  wine  than  Isabella."  In  speak- 
ing of  the  settlers  at  Vevay,  he  continues:  "They 
cultivated  the  Cape  grape  only  (Schuylkill  Musea- 
del),  and  erred  in  the  method  of  manufacture  from 
that  grape.  They  fermented  it  on  the  skin,  and 
made  from  it  a  hard,  rough,  red  wine,  and  seldom 
fit  for  table  use,  and  only  calculated  to  make  a  fine 
wine  sangaree.  The  same  grape,  gathered  before  any 
fermentation  has  taken  place  in  the  fruit,  and  pressed 
as  soon  as  gathered,  with  the  addition  of  from  12  to 


48     THE  EVOLUTION  OP  OUR  NATIVE  FRUITS 

16  oz.  of  New  Orleans  sugar  to  the  gallon,  and 
after  the  fermentation  is  complete,  the  addition  of 
as  much  brandy  as  is  added  to  the  Madeira  wine, 
and  proper  age  given  it,  makes  a  wine,  in  color  the 
same  as  Madeira,  and  equal  to  the  imported  Madeira 
of  the  second  quality.  We  are  abandoning  the  cul- 
tivation of  this  grape  on  the  Ohio,  for  wine.  I  deem 
it  still  worthy  of  cultivation.  We  have  been  led  to 
the  abandonment  of  it,  from  the  opinion  of  our 
German  vine  dressers  and  German  wine  drinkers, 
who  are  opposed  to  sugar  and  brandy  in  the  manu- 
facture of  wine." 

Before  leaving  the  Cape  grape,  let  us  take  a 
survey  of  the  extent  of  vine -growing  in  this  country 
at  the  time  that  this  variety  began  to  be  supplanted 
by  the  Catawba.  The  only  statistical  account  of  the 
vineyards  of  this  time  is  that  contained  in  Rafinesque's 
curious  "American  Manual  of  the  Grape  Vines  and 
the  Art  of  Making  Wine,"  published  in  1830.  Ra- 
finesque's writings  are  not  generally  held  in  high  es- 
teem, but  there  is  no  occasion  to  discredit  his  census  of 
American  viticultural  interests.  "A  capital  mistake,"  he 
says,  "was  the  attempt  to  make  Madeira  wine  in  Amer- 
ica, instead  of  American  wine."  He  then  proceeds: 

"These  and  other  causes  have  discouraged  the  at- 
tempts of  a  vine  company  established  on  purpose  in 
Pennsylvania.  Mr.  Legaux,  the  manager,  by  his 
deceptions  in  grapes,  calling  them  by  false  names, 
and  his  bad  management,  threw  discredit  on  the 
attempt.  However,  by  calling  our  Bland  and  Alex- 
ander grapes  Madeira  and  Cape,  he  was  instrumental 
in  diffusing  them  among  those  who  would  not  have 
noticed  nor  bought  them  if  known  as  native  vines. 


RAFINESQUE'S   INVENTORY  49 

"Notwithstanding  these  difficulties,  many  patriotic 
individuals  have  persisted  in  the  endeavor  to  make 
the  United  States  a  wine  country,  by  establishing 
nurseries  and  vineyards.  Such  were  Major  Adlum, 
of  Georgetown,  and  Mr.  Dufour,  of  Vevay,  who  have 
also  both  published  works  on  the  cultivation  of  vines. 
Mr.  Samuel  Maurick,  of  South  Carolina  (the  first 
exporter  of  our  cotton  in  1784),  who  established  a 
large  vineyard  at  Pendleton.  Mr.  Thomas  Echel- 
berger,  of  York,  Penn.,  who  has  been  instrumental 
in  establishing  20  vineyards  near  York. 

"In  1825  I  collected  an  account  of  our  principal 
vineyards  and  nurseries  of  vines.  They  were  then 
only  60  of  1  to  20  acres  each,  altogether  600  acres. 
While  now,  in  1830,  they  amount  to  200  of  3  to  40 
acres,  or  nearly  5,000  acres  of  vineyards.  Thus  hav- 
ing increased  tenfold  within  5  years,  at  which  rate 
they  promise  to  become  a  permanent  and  increasing 
cultivation. 

"Wishing  to  preserve  the  names  of  the  public 
benefactors  who  had  in  1825  established  our  first 
vineyards,  I  herewith  insert  their  names.  They  are 
independent  of  the  vineyards  of  York,  Vevay,  and 
Vincennes. 

"In  New  York,  George  Gibbs,  Swift,  Prince,  Lansing, 
Loubat,  &c. 

"In  Pennsylvania,  Ca'rr,  James,  Potter,  J.  Webb,  Legaux, 
Echelberger,  E.  Bonsall,  Stoys,  Lemoine,  Rapp. 

"In    Delaware,  Broorae,  J.  Gibbs,  &c. 

"In  Maryland,  Adlutn,  W.  Bernie,  C.  Varle,  R.  Sinclair,  W. 
Miles,  &c. 

"In  Virginia,  Lockhart,  Zane,  R.  Weir,  Noel,  J.  Browne,  J. 
Duling,  &c. 

"In  Carolina,  Habersham,  Noisette,  &c. 


50  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

"In  Georgia,  Maurick,  James  Gardiner,  S.  Grimes,  Checteau, 
M'Call. 

"In  New  Jersey,  Cooper,  at  Camden.    Another  at  Mount  Holly. 
wln  Ohio,  Gen.  Harrison,  Longworth,  Dufour,  &c. 
"In  Indiana,  Rapp  of  Harmony,  the  French  of  Vincennes. 
"In  Alabama,  Dr.  S.  Brown,  and  at  Eagleville. 

"The  average  crop  of  wine  with  us  is  300  gallons 
per  acre.  At  York,  where  2,700  vines  are  put  on  one 
acre,  each  vine  has  often  produced  a  quart  of  wine, 
and  thus  675  gallons  per  acre,  value  $675  in  1823, 
besides  $200  for  5,000  cuttings.  One  acre  of  vineyard 
did  then  let  for  $200  or  300,  thus  value  of  the  acre 
about  $5,000!  This  was  in  poor  soil  unfit  for  wheat, 
and  for  mere  Claret. 

"Now  in  1830,  that  common  French  Claret  often 
sells  only  at  50  cents  the  gallon,  the  income  must 
be  less.  I  hope  our  clarets  may,  in  time,  be  sold 
for  25  cents  the  gallon,  and  table  grapes  at  one 
cent  the  lb.,  and  even  then  an  acre  of  vineyard  will 
give  an  income  of  $75,  and  be  worth  $1,000  the  acre."* 

John    Adlum    and    the    Catawba 

The  chief  distinction  of  the  Cape  grape  is  the 
fact  that  it  was  the  variety  which  first  introduced  to 
public  notice  a  distinctively  American  type  of  viticul- 
ture. It  appears  to  have  had  little  merit  in  point  of 
quality,  notwithstanding  Bartram's  encomium  of  it.  It 
never  attained  to  a  wide  planting.  The  first  great 

The  reader  can  find  an  excellent  account  of  American  wines,  with  references 
to  early  writers  and  experimenters,  in  Putman's  Magazine,  iv.  504,  611  (1854). 
An  extract  from  the  article  is  published  in  Wells'  "Year-Book  of  Agriculture"  for 
1855-6,  p.  307.  He  may  also  consult  an  article  on  native  grapes  by  D.  M.  Balch  in 
Proc.  Essex.  Inst.  iv  (1864). 


JOHN     ADLUM 


American  grape  was  the  Ca- 
tawba,  and  it  is  still  one 
of  the  four  leading  contem- 
poraneous varieties  of  the 
fox -grape  type,  the  others 
being  Concord,  Delaware, 
and  Niagara.  This  superb 
grape,  which  leads  all  suc- 
cessful northern  varieties  in 
its  wine -making  qualities, 
was  brought  to  the  atten- 
tion of  fruit-growers  by 
John  Adlum,  of  the  District 
of  Columbia,  one  of  the  most 
ingenuous  benefactors  of  our 
agriculture.  (See  frontis- 
piece.) 

Adlum  merits  our  atten- 
tion in  three  respects, — for 
his  perception  of  the  general 
fact  that  American  grape- 
culture  must  be  built  upon 
the  improvement  of  our 
native  species  ;  for  his  at- 
tempt to  establish  an  experi- 
ment station;  and  for  the  in- 
troduction of  the  Catawba 
grape.  He  began  his  experi- 
ments towards  the  close  of 
last  century.  He  planted  a 
vineyard  on  Rock  Creek,  in 
the  District  of  Columbia, 
comprising  both  imported 


52  THE    EVOLUTION    OP     OUR    NATIVE     FRUITS 

and  native  varieties.  He  finally  discarded  the  foreign 
kinds.  "It  is  unnecessary,"  he  writes,  "to  seek  for 
more  temperate  latitudes  for  the  cultivation  of  the 
vine.  The  way  is  to  drop  most  kinds  of  foreign 
vines  at  once  (except  a  few  for  the  table),  and 
seek  for  the  best  kinds  of  our  largest  native  Grapes, 
and  if  properly  managed  there  can  be  no  doubt 
but  we  can  make  as  much  Wine,  if  not  more,  than 
any  part  of  the  world,  on  the  same  space  of  ground, 
as  far  north  as  the  43d  degree,  if  not  further  north, 
and  of  good  quality."  In  1823,  he  published,  in 
Washington,  the  first  indigenous  book  upon  grape 
culture ;  and  Rafinesque  further  commemorated  him 
by  giving  the  name  Adlumia  to  the  beautiful  Alle- 
gheny Vine,  or  Smoke  Vine,  of  our  northern  woods 
(Fig.  10).  A  second  edition  of  the  book,  made 
exotic  by  the  addition  of  much  pretentious  foreign 
writing,  appeared  in  1828. 

The  effort  of  Adlum  to  establish  "an  experimental 
farm"  is  one  of  the  earliest  attempts  of  the  kind  on 
record  in  this  country,  and  it  should  have  proper 
credit,  now  that  the  experiment  station  movement  is 
so  thoroughly  established.  He  despaired  that,  "from 
the  progress  of  improvement,  and  the  rapid  increase 
of  population,"  the  native  grapes  were  rapidly  dimin- 
ishing, so  that  they  seem  to  be  in  danger  of  extinc- 
tion. "It  was  to  prevent  this  evil,  (as  far  as  I  could 
be  instrumental  in  preventing  it,)  that  I  wished  to 
obtain  of  the  President  of  the  United  States,  a  few 
years  ago,  a  lease  of  a  portion  of  the  public  ground 
in  the  City  for  the  purpose  of  forming  a  Vineyard, 
and  of  cultivating  an  experimental  farm.  It  was  my 
intention,  had  I  been  successful,  to  procure  cuttings 


JOHN    ADLUM  53 

of  the  different  species  of  the  native  Vine,  to  be  found 
in  the  United  States,  to  ascertain  their  growth,  soil 
and  produce,  and  to  exhibit  to  the  Nation,  a  new 
source  of  wealth,  which  had  been  too  long  neglected. 
My  application  was,  however,  rejected,  and  I  have  been 
obliged  to  prosecute  the  undertaking  myself,  without 
assistance  and  without  patronage,  and  this  I  have 
done  to  the  full  extent  of  my  very  limited  means.  A 
desire  to  be  useful  to  my  countrymen,  has  animated 
all  my  efforts  and  given  a  stimulus  to  all  my  exer- 
tions. *  :  As  I  am  advancing  in  years,  and 
know  not  when  I  may  be  called  hence,  I  am  solicitious 
that  the  information  I  have  acquired  shall  not  die 
with  me."  Poor  Adlum!  It  is  a  pathetic  story  of  a 
man  struggling  on  in  advance  of  his  time,  supported 
only  by  the  confidence  that  his  labors  would  some 
day  come  to  a  full  fruition.  Let  us  twine  a  wreath 
of  the  fragile  Adlumia,  and  renew  his  memory  when 
every  returning  vintage  grows  purple  in  the  autumn 
sun! 

Adlum's  third  claim  to  our  remembrance,  and  the 
one  of  particular  importance  in  the  present  inquiry, 
is  the  introduction  of  the  Catawba  grape,  which  marks 
the  second  epoch  in  American  grape -growing.  It 
seems  that  a  Mrs.  Scholl,  who  kept  a  public  house 
at  Clarksburg,  Montgomery  county,  Maryland,  had 
a  grape  vine  of  much  renown  which  Adlum  pruned 
in  February,  1819,  "for  the  sake  of  the  cuttings." 
"A  German  Priest,  who  saw  Mrs.  Scholl's  Vine  in 
full  bearing  and  when  ripe,  pronounced  them  the  true 
Tokay,  and  said  he  saw  the  same  kind  growing  in 
Tokay,  in  Hungary."  From  this  circumstance,  Adlum 
called  the  grape  the  Tokay,  and  apparently  made  no 


54  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

inquiry,  at  the  time,  into  its  origin.  The  variety  must 
have  been  somewhat  distributed  at  this  time,  for 
Adlum  says  that  it  was  also  grown  by  J.  Johnston, 
near  Frederickton,  Maryland.  Adlum  sent  cuttings 
of  this  grape  to  various  persons,  one  of  whom,  Nicho- 
las Longworth,  of  Cincinnati,  because  of  this  aid, 
became  the  third  genius  of  American  grape -growing. 

In  the  first  edition  of  his  book,  Adlum  called  this 
grape  the  Tokay.  "Where  I  got  cuttings  of  this 
Grape,"  he  writes,  "they  were  of  a  beautiful  lilack 
colour,  and  a  delicate  taste  for  the  table  ;  with  me 
they  are  much  higher  coloured  than  they  were  at  the 
places  I  got  them  from,  and  have  somewhat  of  a 
musky  taste,  tolerable  for  the  table.  They  are  very 
great  bearers,  and  make  an  excellent  Wine."  In  the 
second  edition,  1828,  he  calls  it  Catawba,  and  says: 
"This  I  look  upon  as  one  of  the  best  wine  grapes 
in  the  United  States  ;  and  I  say  the  very  best.  It  is 
a  very  tolerable  table  grape.  Those  that  ripen  in  the 
sun,  are  of  a  deep  purple  color ;  where  they  are 
partially  shaded,  they  are  of  a  lilac  color ;  and  where 
they  ripen  wholly  in  the  shade,  and  are  perfectly  ripe, 
they  are  white,  rich,  sweet  and  vinous.  When  they 
are  colored,  they  have  somewhat  of  a  musky  taste,  re- 
sembling the  Frontignac.  They  are  very  great  and 
certain  bearers — and  it  will  produce  a  greater  variety 
of  good  wines  than  any  other  known  grape — from 
Tokay  and  Champaign,  down  to  Sauterne." 

The  genesis  of  the  Catawba  grape  has  always 
been  a  subject  of  much  speculation.  The  vinous 
quality  of  the  fruit  and  the  amenability  of  the  foliage 
to  mildew,  suggest  hybridity  with  the  European  vine, 
although  the  botanical  characters  of  the  variety  are 


ORIGIN    OP    THE    CATAWBA  55 

clearly  those  of  the  wild  fox-grape,  Vitis  Labrusca .  The 
Oatawba  was  found  wild  in  the  woods  of  Buncombe 
County,  in  extreme  western  North  Carolina,  by  one 
Murray,  who  emigrated  to  that  country  from  Pennsyl- 
vania about  1801,  settling  on  the  Kentucky  and  Warm 
Spring  trail.  The  farm  and  neighborhood  was  called 
Murraysville,  and  it  lies  ten  miles  southeast  of  the 
present  Asheville.  The  grapes  were  found  upon  this 
farm  in  1802,  growing  wild  in  great  profusion.  An- 
other variety  was  also  found,  bearing  very  long, 
crowded  clusters  of  dark  purple  grapes,  but  the  fruit 
was  not  so  good  as  that  of  the  variety  whose  history 
we  are  tracing.  This  better  variety  had  open  clusters 
of  reddish  grapes, — features  which  the  grape -grower 
will  recognize  as  characteristic  of  the  Catawba.  When 
the  forest  was  removed,  the  grapes  became  larger  and 
better.  The  following  year,  1803,  there  came  to  Mur- 
raysville commissioners  to  settle  the  disputed  boun- 
daries of  North  Carolina  and  Georgia,  and  these  per- 
sons tasted  of  the  grapes  and  pronounced  them  good. 
Quakers  from  Newberry  District,  South  Carolina, 
passed  through  the  place  in  1805  on  their  way  to 
Ohio,  and  they  took  some  of  these  grapes  with  them, 
but  nothing  is  known  of  any  offspring  of  these  fruits 
which  may  have  originated  with  the  emigrants.  In 
1807,  General  Davy,  United  States  Senator,  a  resi- 
dent of  Rocky  Mount,  on  the  Catawba  River,  trans- 
planted some  of  the  vines  to  his  own  place ;  and 
some  time  between  1807  and  1816  he  took  cuttings 
or  vines  to  Washington  and  distributed  them  amongst 
friends  in  Maryland  as  the  Catawba  Grape.  Mrs. 
Scholl  probably  obtained  her  vines  of  him  or  of  his 
friends,  and  from  her  Adlum  secured  his  cuttings. 


56  THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

As  late  as  1821,  Dr.  Solomon  Beach,  of  southern 
Ohio,  found  these  grapes  still  growing  wild  at  Mur- 
ray sville.  The  country  abounded  in  grapes,  but  Mrs. 
Murray  pointed  out  one  vine  of  great  excellence, 
which  grew  over  a  small  oak  tree  in  sight  from  the 
door.  This  particular  vine  bore  profusely  a  fruit  of 
"a  reddish  color,  with  a  purple,  dusky  appearance; 
the  taste  sweet  and  pleasant,  with  a  peculiar,  agree- 
able flavor."  This  vine  is  evidently  the  one  from 
which  the  variety  was  propagated.  The  region  in 
which  this  grape  was  found  is  on  the  summit  of  the 
Black  Ridge,  in  a  thinly  timbered  region  with  poor 
and  loose,  gravelly  soil. 

The  conditions  of  the  finding  of  the  Catawba 
seem  to  leave  no  doubt,  therefore,  that  the  variety 
is  a  pure  native,  uncontaminated  by  hybrid! ty  with 
European  varieties.  It  is,  of  course,  conceivable  that 
a  bird  may  have  dropped  a  seed  which  it  got  in  a 
garden,  but  the  presumption  is  against  it.  Dufour 
was  so  loth  to  believe  that  native  grapes  could  have 
merit  for  the  cultivator  that  he  was  inclined  to  explain 
the  origin  of  promising  varieties  in  the  wild  by  sup- 
posing that  birds  .had  taken  the  seeds  there.  "A 
blackbird  or  a  wood -picker,  eating  a  berry  of  the 
Sweetwater,  in  a  garden  at  New  York,  or  one  of  the 
Cape  grapes  at  Spring -mill,  may  travel,"  he  writes, 
"hundreds  of  miles  before  he  sows  the  seed  of  it;  and 
we  may  naturally  foresee,  that  the  number  of  wild 
grapes  having  some  similarity  to  the  European  sorts, 
must  increase  gradually."  But  all  the  records  agree 
in  saying  that  there  were  several  or  even  many  sorts 
of  wild  grapes  growing  in  the  vicinity  of  Murraysville, 
and  a  number  of  them  were  of  good  quality.  It 


ADLUM'S  VINEYARD  57 

would  be  violence  to  suppose  that  all  of  them  were 
accidental  hybrids  with  European  types  which  were 
unknown  to  the  region  ;  and  there  is  no  more  reason 
to  suppose  that  the  Catawba,  alone,  was  a  hybrid  than 
to  suppose  that  all  the  rest  of  them  had  a  similar  im- 
pure origin.  Moreover,  we  know  that  the  wild  Vitis 
L'llrusca  is  capable  of  producing  very  many  curious 
and  wide  variations  in  its  fruit.  We  must  conclude, 
therefore,  with  the  great  majority  of  botanists  and 
intelligent  grape -growers,  that  the  Catawba  grape  is  a 
pure  native.  A  reigning  wild  form  of  this  fox -grape 
is  shown  in  Fig.  11. 

An  anonymous  correspondent  of  the  "New  England 
Farmer,"  in  March,  1824, — evidently  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Representatives — gives  the  following  account 
of  Adlum's  vineyard:  "A  friend  and  myself,  before  the 
meeting  of  the  House  this  morning,  rode  to  the  Vineyard 
of  Mr.  Adlum,  at  Georgetown,  three  or  four  miles  from 
this  city,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a  bundle  of  slips 
to  be  forwarded  to  the  N.  York  Horticultural  Society, 
and  by  them  disposed  of  as  may  be  deemed  proper. 
Unfortunately  my  purpose  was  defeated  to-day  by  the 
accidental  absence  of  the  proprietor.  We  however  had 
the  pleasure  of  surveying  Mr.  Adlum's  grounds,  and  of 
observing  his  mode  of  cultivating  the  vine.  His  vine- 
yard is  in  a  sequestered  and  lonely  situation,  surrounded 
by  hills  and  woods,  on  the  banks  of  Rock  Creek,  a 
small  branch  of  the  Potomack.  It  is  planted  on  a  steep 
declivity,  looking  to  the  south,  and  covering  several 
acres.  The  soil  is  a  light  loam,  stony  and  moist,  the 
growth  about  it  being  chiefly  white  oak.  At  the  lower 
verge,  passes  a  small  brook  planted  with  willows,  from 
which  a  black  vine -dresser  was  very  busy  in  plucking 


ADLUM 's  VINEYARD  59 

twigs,  to  be  used  in  tying  up  the  tendrils,  instead  of 
strings,  which  check  the  circulation  and  impede  the 
growth.  The  vine  is  planted  in  rows,  ranged  one  above 
another  along  the  slope,  so  as  to  catch  all  the  moisture 
that  falls,  and  the  better  to  retain  the  artificial  irriga- 
tion. Between  the  rows,  which  are  at  about  twice  the 
distance  of  Indian  corn,  there  is  sufficient  space  for 
using  the  plough,  to  keep  the  ground  light  and  free  from 
weeds.  The  soil  is  also  enriched  by  common  barn -yard 
manure. 

"There  are  several  distinct  departments  in  the 
grounds,  set  apart  for  the  cultivation  of  numerous 
varieties  of  the  vine.  Mr.  Adlum  has  in  all  twenty  or 
thirty  different  kinds,  among  which  are  the  following: 
Hulin's  Orwigsburgh  grape,  Eland's  Madeira,  Clifton's 
Coustantia,  Tokay,  Schuylkill  Muscadel,  Worthington 
grape,  Carolina  purple  Muscadine,  Red  juice,  large  fox 
grape,  Malmsey,  purple  Front inac,  Royal  Muscadine, 
black  Hamburgh,  black  cluster,  Syrian,  Clapiers,  Miller 
Bergundy,  and  white  sweet  water. 

"Mrs.  Adlum  received  us  with  much  politeness,  and 
treated  us  with  a  glass  of  two  kinds  of  Tokay  wine  of 
an  excellent  quality.  It  is  found  upon  the  tables  of  the 
Secretaries,  and  other  citizens  of  Washington,  not  less 
on  account  of  its  intrinsic  excellence,  than  from  a  wish 
to  encourage  the  growth  of  the  vine,  and  the  cause  of 
domestic  manufactures." 

Major  Adlum  occupies  such  a  commanding  place  in 
our  horticultural  evolution  that  the  reader  will  be  glad 
of  a  sketch  of  his  personal  history.  Unfortunately,  his 
works  have  not  attracted  the  attention  of  biographers 
and  historians ;  and  it  is  with  more  than  common 
pleasure  that  I  am  able,  through  the  aid  of  his  grand- 


60  THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

daughter,  Mrs.  J.  W.  Henry,  of  Washington,  to  draw  a 
rapid  picture  of  the  man.  John  Adlum  was  the  son  of 
Joseph  and  Catherine  Adlum,  and  was  born  in  York, 
Pennsylvania,  April  29,  1759.  At  the  age  of  54,  he 
married  his  cousin,  Miss  Margaret  Adlum,  daughter  of 
John  Adlum,  of  Fredericktown,  Md.  They  had  two 
children,  Margaret  C.,  afterwards  Mrs.  Cornelius  Barber, 
of  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  Anna  Maria,  afterwards 
Mrs.  H.  Dent.  They  lived  several  years  near  Havre 
de  Grace,  when  Mr.  Adlum  moved  to  Montgomery 
county,  Md.,  where  he  lived  for  a  few  years.  His  last 
change  of  residence  was  to  "The  Vineyard,"  two  miles 
from  Georgetown,  D.  C.,  where  he  died  March  1,  1836. 
It  was  at  "  The  Vineyard"  that  he  first  began  the  culti- 
vation of  grapes.  He  was  a  soldier  in  the  Revolution,  a 
major  in  the  Provisional  Army  during  the  administration 
of  the  elder  Adams,  and  afterwards  a  brigadier -general 
in  the  militia  of  Pennsylvania.  It  is  said  of  him,  that, 
"as  a  scientific  agriculturist,  he  had  few  superiors.  He 
devoted  almost  the  whole  of  his  life  to  the  acquisition 
and  diffusion  of  useful  information."  "In  early  life  he 
was  a  great  friend  of  Dr.  Joseph  Priestly,  of  Northum- 
berland, and  the  knowledge  he  acquired  of  chemical 
science  from  that  learned  philosopher  he  applied  with 
signal  success  to  various  agricultural  operations."  His 
wife  died  at  the  residence  of  their  daughter,  Mrs. 
Barber,  July  16,  1852,  at  the  age  of  86.  Major  Adlum 
was  also  a  surveyor,  and  in  1789  he  was  directed  by 
Surveyor  General  Lukens  to  survey  the  reserved  tracts 
of  land  at  Presque  Isle  (Erie),  Le  Boeuf,  etc.  The 
same  year  he  was  appointed  by  the  government,  on 
the  recommendation  of  William  Maclay,  Benjamin 
Rush,  Professor  Nicholson,  and  Colonel  Thomas  Hart- 


JOHN    ADLUM  61 

ley,  a  commissioner  for  examining  the  navigation  of 
the  Susquehanna  River,  and  subsequently,  with  Ben- 
jamin Rittenhouse,  to  examine  the  Schuylkill  River. 
On  the  27th  of  June,  1791,  he  wrote  to  Governor  Mif- 
flin  that  he  was  at  New  Town  with  Colonel  Timothy 
Pickering  to  meet  the  Oneida  and  Onondaga  Indians. 
They  were  on  their  way  to  Painted  Post,  where  the 
meeting  was  to  be  held.  In  August  of  the  same  year, 
he  wrote  a  long  letter  from  Fort  Franklin,  where  he 
met  Cornplanter  and  other  chiefs  on  public  business. 
He  at  one  time  lived  at  Muncy,  and  assisted  in  making 
an  early  map  of  Pennsylvania.  On  the  14th  of  April, 
1795,  he  was  appointed  by  Governor  Mifflin  one  of  the 
first  associate  judges  of  Lycoming  county,  and  resigned 
February  16,  1798,  on  account  of  contemplated  change 
of  residence. 

Major  Adlum  has  been  described  as  being  a  tall,  stout, 
muscular  man,  and  very  active  in  his  movements.  He 
had  blue  eyes,  light  hair,  a  florid  complexion,  and  a 
smooth -shaven  face.  He  was  very  benevolent,  and 
loved  to  aid  the  needy  and  unfortunate.  The  frontis- 
piece portrait  is  reduced  from  an  oil  painting  by  Peel. 

The  Rise  of  Commercial  Viticulture 

Nicholas  Longworth,  at  Cincinnati,  received  cuttings 
of  the  Catawba  from  Adlum  in  1825,  and  thereupon  the 
second  era  of  viticulture,  west  of  the  Alleghenies,  began. 
The  first  attempt,  at  Vevay,  New  Harmony,  Vincennes, 
and  other  places,  was  beginning  to  feel  insecure.  A 
better  variety  than  the  Cape  grape,  and  a  surer  one 
than  the  European  kinds,  was  wanted.  The  Catawba 
seemed  to  answer  the  demand.  Longworth,  who  had 
come  from  New  Jersey,  was  the  disseminator  and  pro- 


THE     EVOLUTION     OF     OUR     NATIVE     FRUITS 


motor  of  the  new  light.  He  was  a  man  of  strong  per- 
sonality and  great  enterprise,  and  he  threw  himself  full 
length  into  the  new  grape -growing.  He  was  farmer  and 


Fig.  12.    Nicholas  Longworth  at  74  years. 

banker,  and  died  possessed  of  great  wealth.  His  grape- 
growing  and  wine  -  making  were  eminently  successful  for 
many  years.  In  1850,  he  wrote  that  the  Catawba  "will 
be  worth  millions  of  dollars  to  the  United  States,  and  I 
doubt  not  that  grapes  of  equal  value  are  yet  to  be  found. 
*  *  *  If  the  wild  hills  of  California  be  as  rich  in 


GRAPES    AT    CINCINNATI  63 

grapes  as  in  gold  dust,  Jerseyrnau  though  I  am,  I  shall 
be  more  gratified  to  receive  a  grape  cutting  than  the 
largest  lump  of  gold  that  region  has  ever  produced." 
In  1841,  he  sent  a  few  bottles  of  wine,  made  in  his  own 
vineyards,  to  London  "for  distribution  among  the  Eng- 
lish horticulturists."  This  wine  was  two  years  old,  and 
was  made  of  "the  pure  juice  of  an  American  grape." 
At  that  time,  Mr.  Longworth  had  forty  acres  in  grapes, 
and  he  cultivated  "American  grapes  only,  with  one 
exception,  and  that  was  sent,  me  as  a  native." 

This  vine-growing  spread  until,  in  1859,  Cist  declares 
that  "the  number  of  acres  in  vineyard  culture  within 
twenty  miles  around  Cincinnati,  is  now  estimated  at  two 
thousand.  An  average  yield  for  a  series  of  years,  is 
supposed  to  be  two  hundred  gallons  to  the  acre,  which 
is  about  the  average  for  France  and  Germany."  Long- 
worth  wrote,  in  1849,  that  "our  vineyards  may  have 
produced  800,  and  possibly  1,000  gallons  on  an  acre, 
but  110  vineyard  has  averaged  300  gallons  for  ten  years." 
The  wine  was  worth,  at  the  press,  from  one  dollar  to  a 
dollar  and  twenty -five  cents  a  gallon,  and  twenty -five 
cents  a  gallon  more  when  secured  at  the  cellars  of  the 
vintners.  The  same  authority,  Cist,  in  "Cincinnati  in 
1859,"  speaks  of  the  rise  of  grape -planting  in  Tennes- 
see, Georgia,  Alabama,  and  the  Carolinas,  and  says  that 
"for  the  last  three  or  four  years  past,  the  sales  of 
grape  roots  and  cuttings  in  Cincinnati,  for  the  South 
and  Southwest,  have  averaged  about  two  hundred 
thousand  roots  and  four  hundred  thousand  cuttings 
annually,  and  principally  of  the  Catawba  grape." 

Longworth  is  called  by  E.  J.  Hooper  "the  father  of 
American  grape  culture."  Robert  Buchanan  writes,  in 
1850,  that  "to  Mr.  Longworth,  more  than  to  any  other 


64  THE     EVOLUTION     OF     OUR     NATIVE     FRUITS 

man  in  the  West,  we  are  most  indebted  for  our  knowledge 
in  grape  culture.  Mr.  Longworth  has,  within  the  last 
twenty-seven  years,  with  unwearied  zeal  and  a  liberal 
expenditure  of  money,  in  numerous  experiments  with 
foreign  and  native  grapes,  succeeded  in  enabling  himself 
and  others  to  present  to  the  public  a  sparkling  Catawba, 
rivaling  the  best  French  Champagne,  and  a  dry  wine 
from  the  same  grape,  that  compares  favorably  with  the 
celebrated  Hock  wine  of  the  Rhine." 

But  Longworth  was  also  an  early  and  ardent  advo- 
cate of  the  cultivation  of  the  strawberry,  and  wrote 
the  first  American  treatise  upon  that  fruit,  before  1850, 
when  Cincinnati,  in  the  language  of  Robert  Buchanan, 
had  become  "famous  for  her  fine  sugar- cured  hams, 
sparkling  Catawba  wines,  and  a  cheap  and  abundant 
strawberry  market."  Longworth  was  "the  chief  dis- 
seminator of  that  most  important  fact,  the  sexual 
character  of  the  strawbeny,"  as  Hooper  puts  it ;  by 
which  it  is  meant  that  he  expounded  the  fact  that  the 
flowers  of  some  varieties  of  strawberries  lack  stamens, 
and  that  stamen -bearing  varieties  must  be  planted 
with  them  to  insure  fertilization.  This  fact  had  been 
observed  long  before  his  time.  Dufour,  for  example, 
had  taken  note  of  it.  But  it  remained  for  Longworth 
to  fully  expound  it  to  the  horticulturist. 

Longworth  was  born  in  Newark,  New  Jersey,  in 
1783  ;  he  died  in  Cincinnati,  where  he  had  lived  for 
about  sixty  years,  in  1863.  The  Bishop  of  Cincinnati, 
J.  B.  Purcell,  wrote  in  1841  of  Mr.  Longworth  "from, 
long  and  intimate  acquaintance"  as  "one  of  the  wealth- 
iest, most  intelligent,  and  enterprising  citizens  of  Cin- 
cinnati." The  editor  of  the  "Horticulturist,"  upon  the 
occasion  of  Mr.  Longworth's  death  in  1863,  wrote: 


HORTICULTURE     AT    CINCINNATI  65 

"He  did  more  to  encourage  grape  culture  than  any 
other  man  of  his  day,  and  he  was  the  first  to  make 
for  market  a  good  American  wine.  His  vineyards, 
including  those  of  his  tenants,  were  of  vast  extent. 
When  the  history  of  grape  culture  in  the  United  States ' 
shall  be  written,  the  labors  of  Nicholas  Longworth  will 
form  an  important  part  of  it." 

Under  the  stimulus  of  this  rapidly  enlarging  grape 
interest,  gardening  pursuits  became  prominent  about 
Cincinnati,  and  there  had  developed,  by  1850,  a  center 
of  horticultural  influence  which  eclipsed,  in  the  charac- 
ter of  its  men  and  the  variety  of  its  interests,  any  simi- 
lar community  which  has  ever  arisen  in  the  West.  A 
notable  company  of  horticultural  authors  spread  this 
influence  far  and  wide.  At  the  head  and  front  of  this 
companj'  of  writers  were  Longworth  and  John  A. 
Warder;  and  they  were  closely  seconded  by  Robert 
Buchanan,  E.  J.  Hooper,  F.  R.  Elliott,  G.  M.  Kern, 
Thomas  Affleck,  Adolph  Strauch,  Charles  Reemelin, 
and  Edward  Sayers,  the  last  having  removed  from 
New  England  after  his  career  as  an  author  was  estab- 
lished. With  these  names  should  be  associated  those 
of  many  enterprising  vineyardists,  especially  Mottier, 
S.  Mosher,  L.  Rehfuss,  Werk,  Bogen,  J.  A.  Corneau, 
John  Williamson,  T.  H.  Yeatman. 

Grape -growing  was  now — before  the  middle  of  the 
century — attracting  attention  in  many  parts  of  the 
country,  and  other  varieties  than  the  Catawba  were 
concerned  in  its  spread.  While  Adlum  was  giving 
his  attention  to  the  Catawba,  another  grape,  supposed 
to  be  a  native  of  Dorchester,  South  Carolina,  was 
gaining  favor  in  the  North.  This  had  been  taken 
North  probably  as  early  as  1816.  It  was  introduced 


66  THE     EVOLUTION     OP     OUR     NATIVE     FRUITS 

into  New  York  by  Mrs.  Isabella  Gibbs,  of  Brooklyn, 
from  whom  it  passed  to  William  Robert  Prince,  and 
for  whom  he  named  it  the  Isabella.  This  was  the 
third  great  American  grape  in  point  of  historical  im- 
portance, and  it  is  another  offshoot  of  the  southern 
type  of  the  wild  fox -grape,  Vitis  Ldbrusca.  "It  is  a 
dark  purple  fruit,  of  a  large  size,  oval  form,  and  juicy, 
and  equals  some  of  the  secondary  European  grapes," 
wrote  Prince  in  1830;  "and  for  vigour  of  growth,  and 
an  abundant  yield,  exceeds  any  other  yet  cultivated  in 
this  country,  and  requires  no  protection  during  the 
winter  season."  It  was  thought  to  be  a  hardier  grape 
than  the  Catawba,  and  to  ripen  earlier  in  the  fall,  and 
for  these  reasons  it  obtained  great  favor  in  the  north- 
ernmost states,  and  occasional  vines  of  it  may  still  be 
seen  about  old  establishments.  It  should  be  said, 
before  leaving  the  Isabella,  that  fifty  years  ago  its 
American  birth  was  strongly  disputed,  and  the  most 
direct  evidence  was  adduced  to  show  that  it  is  a  Span- 
ish grape.  Bernard  Laspeyre,  a  noted  grape  grower 
near  Wilmington,  North  Carolina,  states  that  he  dis- 
covered the  grape  in  the  garden  of  another  French- 
man at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  and  that  this  man 
had  himself  brought  it  from  Spain.  This  history  is 
fully  set  forth  in  Spooner's  "Cultivation  of  American 
Grape  Vines,"  in  1846,  in  the  second  volume  of  the 
"Western  Horticultural  Review,"  1852,  and  in  other 
early  writings.  While  the  records  seem  to  be  ex- 
plicit, the  botanical  characters  of  the  Isabella  are  so 
clearly  those  of  the  native  fox -grape  that  all  writers 
now  agree  that  it  is  American,  or  at  most  only  a 
dilute  hybrid  with  the  European  type.  There  must 
have  been  some  error  in  Laspeyre 's  history;  or  it  is 


SPREAD    OF    GRAPE -GROWING  67 

possible    that   his   grape   was   really   not   the    Isabella, 
but  a  closely  similar  variety. 

Progressive  horticulturists  were  now  fully  con- 
vinced of  the  importance  of  the  native  grapes.  At- 
tempts to  grow  the  European  varieties  in  the  open 
air  were  still  made  here  and  there,  but  there  were  no 
longer  any  sustained  or  concerted  efforts  to  introduce 
them,  and  everyone  began  to  feel  that  the  hope  for 
American  grape-culture  lies  in  the  amelioration  of  the 
native  species.  Various  persons  made  definite  attempts 
to  secure  promising  wild  forms  of  grapes.  Prince  de- 
scribed eighty -one  native  grapes  in  his  "Treatise  on 
the  Vine,"  in  1830.  Even  Johnson,  in  1806,  while 
recommending  chiefly  the  European  grapes,  says  that 
"the  sorts  of  vines  are  too  numerous  to  mention,  even 
if  confined  to  the  American  alone;"  but  he  evidently 
had  in  mind  the  wild  forms  rather  more  than  those 
which  had  been  brought  into  cultivation.  As  early  as 
1820  or  1821,  Mr.  Herbemont,  of  South  Carolina,  had 
sent  out  a  circular  requesting  cuttings  of  native  grapes. 
(See  page  78.)  Longworth  made  a  similar  request  in 
the  Cincinnati  Gazette  in  1848  or  1849,  and  twenty - 
four  varieties  were  sent  him  in  the  spring  of  1849. 
From  1840  on,  the  annual  crops  of  novel  varieties 
have  afforded  a  continuous  fund  of  inspiration  to 
those  with  grape-growing  proclivities;  but  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  the  novelties  have  fallen  by  the  way, 
and  are  now  forgotten.  No  doubt,  there  have  been 
two  thousand  or  three  thousand  varieties,  more  or  less, 
disseminated  in  the  last  fifty  or  sixty  years,  most  of 
which  are  offspring  of  our  native  species. 

About    1830,   grapes   were    planted   at    Hammonds- 
port,    at   the   southern    extremity   of   Keuka   Lake,    in 


68  THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

western  New  York,  and  this  proved  to  be  the  begin- 
ning of  the  famous  New  York  vineyard  interest,  which, 
as  practiced  about  the  central  lakes,  is  to  this  day  the 
most  important  Catawba- growing  region  in  the  land. 
About  that  time,  Rev.  William  Bostwick  planted  vines 
of  Catawba  and  Isabella,  and  he  raised  excellent 
grapes.  About  1843,  William  Hastings  planted  vines 
of  the  same  varieties  in  his  garden,  and  was  also  suc- 
cessful. The  first  regular  vineyard  in  the  region  was 
one  of  about  two  acres  of  Catawbas  and  Isabellas, 
planted  in  the  town  of  Pulteney  in  1853.  But  as  early 
as  1846,  grapes  were  shipped  from  this  Keuka  Lake 
region  to  New  York.  A  shipment  of  two  hundred  to 
three  hundred  pounds,  according  to  George  O.  Snow, 
shipped  on  the  Erie  Canal,  broke  the  New  York  city 
market.  In  1890,  the  same  region  shipped,  exclusive 
of  the  amount  used  for  wine,  about  twenty  thousand 
tons  of  grapes. 

Grape -growing  began  in  the  lower  Hudson  River 
Valley  about  the  same  time  as  about  Keuka  Lake. 
One  of  the  earliest  vineyards  was  planted  in  1845,  of 
Isabella  vines,  in  Ulster  county,  by  William  T.  Cornell. 
Another  early  planter  was  William  Kniffin,  a  neighbor 
of  Cornell,  the  originator  of  the  now  famous  Kniffin 
system  of  training.  The  evolution  of  grape  training 
has  shown  the  same  transformation  as  that  of  the 
grapes  themselves.  The  early  methods  were  essentially 
or  exactly  those  used  in  Europe,  but  with  the  gradual 
aggrandizement  of  the  native  species,  distinctively 
native  systems  of  training  arose.  The  interest  in 
grapes  was  soon  widespread,  having  been  disseminated 
from  many  early  small  centers  from  New  England  and 
New  York  to  Missouri  and  the  Southern  states. 


IN    MISSOURI  69 

An  important  grape  center  early  sprung  up  in 
Gasconade  county,  eastern  Missouri,  a  locality  which 
later  became  conspicuous  because  of  the  labors  of 
George  Husmann  and  Jacob  Rommel.  The  former 
settled  at  Hermann,  and  the  latter  at  Morrison.  The 
first  cultivated  grape  to  fruit  at  Hermann,  according 
to  Husmann,  was  an  Isabella,  which  was  planted  by 
Mr.  Fugger,  and  which  bore  in  1845.  The  first  wine 
was  made  in  1846.  The  Catawba  was  introduced,  and 
first  bore  in  1848.  This  variety  awakened  great  in- 
terest, but  it  soon  succumbed  to  disease,  and  its  place 
was  taken  by  Norton's  Virginia,  of  which  we  have  yet 
to  speak  (page  78).  Husmann  early  gave  his  attention 
to  writing,  and  has  produced  "The  Cultivation  of  the 
Native  Grape,  and  Manufacture  of  American  Wines" 
(1866),  which,  in  its  modern  and  enlarged  form  (1880), 
is  known  as  "American  Grape  Growing  and  Wine 
Making."  He  also  established  and  edited  the  "Grape 
Culturist"  (1869-1871),  which  was  the  first  American 
journal  to  devote  itself  exclusively  to  a  single  type  of 
plant.  Since  Adlum,  no  writer  of  books  has  so  clearly 
and  forcibly  emphasized  the  importance  of  the  native 
grapes  as  Husmann.  .  Jacob  Rommel  gave  his  atten- 
tion to  the  breeding  of  varieties,  using  a  new  stock— 
the  river -bank  grape  (Vitis  vulpina,  or  V.  riparia) — 
as  the  parent  of  crosses.  Some  of  his  results  are 
Elvira,  Transparent,  Faith,  Etta,  Montefiore,  and  the 
like. 

It  is  not  our  purpose  to  follow  this  history  further, 
except  to  note  the  introduction  of  a  few  remaining  novel 
types  of  varieties. 

In  1843,  a  new  grape  was  exhibited  before  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Horticultural  Society,  in  Boston,  by  Mrs. 


70  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

Diana  Crehore,  of  Milton,  Massachusetts.  It  was  a 
seedling  of  the  Catawba,  with  round  pale  red  or  amber 
berries.  It  was  named  the  Diana,  in  honor  of  the  origi- 
nator. This  grape  soon  attracted  wide  attention,  and  it 
was  the  precursor  of  a  constantly  widening  stream  of 
ameliorated  seedlings  of  known  parentage.  The  novi- 
tiate stage  of  our  grape  culture, — the  introduction  of 
grapes  from  the  wild, — now  came  rapidly  to  a  close,  and 
the  epoch  of  definite  attempt  at  the  breeding  of  varie- 
ties came  on.  Some  of  our  native  fruits,  notably  the 
cranberry  and  dewberry,  are  yet  in  this  initiate  stage, 
in  which  the  new  varieties  are  still  such  as  are  picked 
up  in  wild  areas  rather  than  in  gardens. 

The  next  great  event  in  the  evolution  of  American 
grapes  was  the  making  of  hybrids  with  the  European 
vine.  The  first  authentic  hybrid  vine  was  exhibited 
before  the  Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society  in  1854, 
by  John  Fisk  Allen,  author  of  "A  Practical  Treatise  on 
the  Culture  and  Treatment  of  the  Grape  Vine."  It  was 
a  hybrid  between  the  Golden  Chasselas  and  Isabella. 
About  this  time  E.  S.  Rogers,  of  Roxbury,  Massachu- 
setts, began  those  remarkable  experiments  in  hybridiza- 
tion which  have  given  us  so  many  excellent  varieties. 
Rogers  obtained  his  first  fruits  in  1856.  J.  H.  Ricketts, 
a  bookbinder  of  Newburgh,  New  York,  George  Has- 
kell,  lawyer,  of  Ipswich,  Massachusetts,  Jacob  Rommel 
and  Hermann  Jaeger,  of  Missouri,  Jacob  Moore,  of  New 
York,  and  T.  V.  Munson,  of  Texas,  have  greatly  extended 
our  knowledge  of  the  possibilities  of  crossing  amongst 
the  grapes.  But  the  primary  hybrids  of  the  American 
and  European  species  have  never  made  a  great  impres- 
sion upon  commercial  grape -culture,  although  many  of 
them  are  much  prized  for  their  high  quality  in  the  home 


THE     DELAWARE     GRAPE  71 

garden.  What  they  gain  in  quality  they  are  apt  to  lose 
in  amenability  to  mildew  and  phylloxera,  in  lack  of 
robustness,  or  in  infertility  of  the  bloom.  The  sec- 
ondary or  attenuated  hybrids,  however, — those  born  of 
hybrids,  or  of  a  hybrid  with  some  other  variety, — give 
more  promise;  and  of  these  there  are  striking  examples 
in  Jacob  Moore's  Brighton  and  Diamond,  and  in  some 
of  Munson's  recent  productions.  There  is  promise  of 
much  advantage  to  be  gained  by  the  gradual  admix- 
ture of  dilute  blood  of  foreign  grapes  into  our  own 
improved  types,  but  the  results  are  quite  as  likely  to 
come  from  accidental  admixtures  as  from  intending 
ones,  for  most  plant -breeders  are  looking  for  bold  and 
emphatic  results. 

All  this  is  well  illustrated  in  the  Delaware,  which 
enjoys  the  distinction  of  being  the  only  one  of  the  four 
great  American  grapes  which  gives  any  very  strong  evi- 
dence of  foreign  blood.  This  has  an  obscure  history, 
and  the  parents,  whatever  they  may  be,  are  so  nicely 
blended  in  it  that  they  cannot  be  positively  distinguished. 
It  was  found  in  a  New  Jersey  garden  about  1850.  The 
owner  of  the  garden,  Paul  H.  Provost,  had  come  from 
Switzerland,  and  had  brought  grape-vines  with  him. 
This  nondescript  vine  was  at  first  thought  to  be  an 
Italian  grape,  then  it  was  thought  to  be  the  Red  Trami- 
ner  of  the  Old  World.  Some  thought  it  a  seedling  from 
one  of  the  European  varieties.  But  at  the  present  time, 
most  authorities  consider  it  to  be  a  hybrid,  perhaps  the 
greater  number  of  them  thinking  it  a  cross  between  some 
fox -grape  and  the  European  vine,  and  others,  like  Mun- 
son,  regarding  it  as  a  combination  of  the  fox -grape  and 
the  southern  wine -grape.  It  is  one  of  those  fortuitous 
riddles  which  nature  now  and  then  produces,  the  genesis 


72  THE     EVOLUTION     OF     OUR    NATIVE     FRUITS 

of    which,  if  known  and  well  considered,  might  afford 
new  light  to  the  intending  breeder  of  plants. 

The  next  great  event  in  the  evolution  of  the  Ameri- 
can grape, — and  in  respect  to  its  commercial  importance, 
the  greatest  event  of  all, — was  the  introduction  of  a 
meritorious  variety  of  the  northern  fox -grape  type. 
This  variety  is  the  Concord.  It  was  introduced  early 
in  the  fifties.  The  earliest  record  of  it  in  the  Massa- 
chusetts Horticultural  Society  is  in  1853:  "E.  W.  Bull 
exhibited  his  new  seedling  grape,  which,  under  the  name 
of  Concord,  is  now  so  generally  cultivated  throughout 
the  country."  A  year  later,  "the  Concord  was  shown  in 
great  perfection"  before  the  same  society.  The  first 
fruit  of  this  grape  was  obtained  in  1849.  The  exact 
origin,  of  it  is  obscure.  Mr.  Bull  bought  the  house  at 
Concord,  in  which  he  lived  until  his  death,  in  1840. 
That  year,  he  relates,  boys  brought  up  from  the  river 
some  wild  grapes,  and  scattered  them  about  the  place. 
A  seedling  appeared,  evidently  the  offspring  of  these 
truant  grapes.  Mr.  Bull  tended  it,  and  in  1843  he 
obtained  a  bunch  of  grapes  from  it.  He  planted  seeds 
of  this  bunch,  and  a  resulting  plant  fruited  in  1849. 
The  fruit  had  such  merit  that  all  other  seedlings  were 
destroyed.  The  new  variety  was  named  the  Concord, 
and  although  its  quality  is  not  the  highest,  and  it  was  at 
first  disparaged  on  this  account,  it  is  now  the  dominant 
grape  in  all  eastern  America,  and  it  was  the  first  variety 
of  sufficient  hardiness,  productiveness  and  immunity 
from  diseases  to  carry  the  culture  of  the  vine  into  every 
garden  in  the  land.  As  an  illustration  of  the  extent  to 
which  a  particular  variety  or  a  custom  may  dominate  the 
industry  of  a  region,  we  may  cite  the  influence  of  the 
Concord  upon  the  people  of  Chautauqua  county,  New 


EPHRIAM 


BULL 


73 


York.  The  variety  was  introduced  there  about  1856, 
by  Lincoln  Fay,  and  that  region  is  to  this  day,  with  its 
2(5. 000  acres  of  grapes,  controlled  by  the  Concord.  In 


Fig.  13.    Ephriam  W.  Bull,  at  83  years.    Originator  of  the  Concord  grape. 


the  central  lake  region  of  New  York,  however,  where 
the  grape  interest  began  earlier  and  before  the  days  of 
the  Concord,  the  Catawba  is  still  the  controlling  variety, 
and  the  wine  interest  is  great. 

Ephriam  W.  Bull,   the  originator  of    the    Concord, 
died  September  27,  1895,  in  his  ninetieth   year,   loved 


THE    CONCORD  75 

of  his  neighbors  and  honored  by  every  countryman  who 
grows  or  eats  a  grape.  It  is  a  pregnant  type,  and  has 
given  rise  to  no  less  than  fifty  honorable  seedlings, 
which  range  in  color  from  greenish  white  to  purple- 
black.  It  is  the  one  most  important  type  of  American 
grapes,  and  the  really  successful  commercial  viticulture 
of  the  country  dates  from  its  dissemination  ;  and  yet 
this  grape  is  a  pure  native  fox -grape,  and  evidently 
only  twice  removed  from  the  wild  vine.  If  such  humble 
parentage  is  capable  of  developing  such  an  enormous 
industry,  what  may  we  not  expect  for  the  future  ! 

The  Concord,  as  we  have  said,  has  given  us  a  most 
extensive  and  interesting  progeny.  Some  of  its  off- 
spring are  Worden,  Moore  Early,  Pocklington,  Eaton 
and  Rockland.  Of  all  the  Concord  seedlings,  the  most 
famous  is  the  Worden,  which  originated  at  Minetto, 
Oswego  county,  New  York,  on  the  grounds  of  Schuyler 
Worden,  who,  although  over  ninety  years  of  age,  still 
takes  the  liveliest  interest  in  the  variety.  The  old 
vine,  about  thirty-five  years  old  at  this  writing  (1898), 
is  still  healthy  and  productive.  The  seed  from  which 
it  came  was  taken  from  an  isolated  Concord  vine, 
and  the  plant  bore  at  four  years  from  the  seed.  The 
variety  was  named  by  J.  A.  Place,  a  prominent  citizen 
of  Oswego  and  an  acquaintance  of  Worden. 

While  all  these  types  were  developing  from  the 
fox-grape,  Vitis  Labrnsca  (Fig.  11),  another  native 
grape  of  the  North  had  given  valuable  offspring.  This 
is  the  river -bank  grape,  Vitis  vulpina  (  Vitis  riparia  of 
the  botanies)  (Fig.  15).  "In  the  year  1821,"  writes 
W.  C.  Strong,  in  his  "Culture  of  the  Grape,"  "Hon. 
Hugh  White,  then  in  the  junior  class  in  Hamilton 
College,  New  York,  planted  a  seedling  vine  in  the 


J?ig.  15.    The  river-bank  grape.     Fiji's  vulpina  (V.  riparia). 


THE    CLINTON  77 

grounds  of  Professor  Noyes,  on  College  Hill,  which 
still  remains,  and  is  the  original  Clinton, —  a  very 
hardy,  healthy,  and  productive  grape,  of  the  first  class. 
Bunches  and  berries  small,  black,  with  blue  bloom; 
brisk,  juicy,  quite  acid,  but  improves  by  keeping  until 
February."  The  original  Clinton  vine  is  still  stand- 
ing, at  Clinton,  where  it  climbs  over  a  great  elm  tree. 
Rev.  E.  P.  Powell,  of  Clinton,  writes  me  that  he  has 
known  the  vine  for  forty  years,  and  that  there  can  be 
no  mistake  about  the  identity  of  it.  He  says:  "It 
is  a  seedling  out  of  a  handful  sowed  by  advice  of 
Professor  Noyes, — the  greatest  genius  Hamilton  College 
ever  had, — and  he  selected  the  best;  and  this  was  the 
Clinton.  Where  the  seed  came  from,  I  do  not  know." 
At  one  time,  this  Clinton  grape  was  widely  dissemi- 
nated for  general  vineyard  culture,  but  it  could  not 
contend  with  Concord,  Diana,  and  hosts  of  other 
rapidly  appearing  fox -grapes,  and  its  use  is  now 
almost  wholly  restricted  to  wine -making;  but  it  intro- 
duced a  new  type  of  grape — although  some  authorities 
suppose  it  to  be  a  hybrid  between  the  river -bank  and 
fox -grapes — and  one  which  was  destined  to  play  a 
most  important  part,  in  a  new  role,  in  the  years  to 
come  (see  page  92). 

We  have  already  seen  (page  13)  that  the  French 
colonists  of  the  southeastern  Atlantic  states  early 
made  attempts  to  grow  the  European  vine.  These, 
like  all  similar  attempts  in  eastern  America,  had  failed. 
But  out  of  the  ruins  there  had  come,  early  in  the  cen- 
tury, several  types  of  grapes  of  much  value,  all  of 
them  possessing  great  merit  for  wine.  Chief  of  these 
are  Le  Noir  and  Herbemont.  The  latter  is  now  widely 
grown  in  the  South,  and  it  receives  its  name  from 


78  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

Nicholas  Herbemont,  who  was  a  public  spirited  grape- 
grower  of  South  Carolina  in  the  early  part  of  the 
century  (page  67).  This  grape  had  begun  to  attract 
attention  about  Cincinnati  as  early  as  1850,  and  in 
1853  Nicholas  Longworth  strongly  recommended  it  to 
the  members  of  the  Cincinnati  Horticultural  Society. 
Wine  making  was  still  the  leading  motive  in  Long- 
worth's  time,  and  he  was  attracted  by  the  Herbe- 
mont largely  because  of  its  merits  for  wine.  "The 
singularity  of  the  wine  is,"  he  says,  "that  it  has  the 
aroma  and  flavor  of  the  Spanish  Manzanilla,  but  su- 
perior." 

While  the  Herbemont  was  the  leading  grape  in  the 
South,  and  was  becoming  established  as  far  north  as  the 
Ohio  Valley,  another  epoch-making  grape  was  coming 
into  notice  in  the  middle  South.  This  was  the  Norton's 
Virginia.  It  was  a  wild  grape,  found  by  Dr.  F.  A. 
Lemosq  on  Cedar  Island,  in  James  River,  near  Rich- 
mond, Virginia,  in  1835.  It  was  recommended  to  public 
favor  as  a  wine  grape  by  Dr.  D.  N.  Norton,  an  enterpris- 
ing horticulturist  living  near  Richmond,  and  the  variety 
now  bears  his  name.  The  grape  early  reached  the  Cin- 
cinnati grape  settlement,  but  it  was  first  brought  dis- 
tinctly to  the  fore  in  the  pioneer  West  (page  69).  Hus- 
mann,  writing  in  1865,  details  its  introduction  into 
Missouri:  "It  was  about  this  time  [1850]  that  the 
attention  of  some  of  our  grape -growers  was  drawn  to- 
wards a  small,  insignificant  looking  grape,  which  had 
been  obtained  by  a  Mr.  Wiedersprecker  from  Mr.  Hein- 
richs,  who  had  brought  it  from  Cincinnati,  and,  almost 
at  the  same  time,  by  Dr.  Kehr,  who  had  brought  it  with 
him  from  Virginia.  The  vine  seemed  a  rough  customer, 
and  its  fruit  very  insignificant  when  compared  with  the 


NORTON'S  VIRGINIA  79 

large  bunch  and  berry  of  the  Catawba,  but  we  soon 
observed  that  it  kept  its  foliage  bright  and  green  when 
that  of  the  Catawba  became  sickly  and  dropped;  and 
also,  that  no  rot  or  mildew  damaged  the  fruit,  when 
that  of  the  Catawba  was  nearly  destroyed  by  it.  A  few 
tried  to  propagate  it  by  cuttings,  but  generally  failed  to 
make  it  grow.  They  then  resorted  to  grafting  and  lay- 
ering, with  much  better  success.  After  a  few  years  a 
few  bottles  of  wine  were  made  from  it,  and  found  to  be 
very  good.  But  at  this  time  it  almost  received  its  death- 
blow, by  a  very  unfavorable  letter  from  Mr.  Longworth, 
who  had  been  asked  his  opinion  of  it,  and  pronounced 
it  worthless.  Of  course,  with  the  majority,  the  fiat  of 
Mr.  Longworth,  the  father  of  American  grape -culture, 
was  conclusive  evidence,  and  they  abandoned  it.  Not 
all,  however;  a  few  persevered,  among  them  Messrs. 
Jacob  Rommel,  Poeschel,  Langendoerfer,  Grein  and  my- 
self. We  thought  Mr.  Longworth  was  human  and 
might  be  mistaken,  and  trusted  as  much  to  the  evidence 
of  our  senses  as  to  his  verdict,  therefore  increased  it  as 
fast  as  we  could,  and  the  sequel  proved  that  we  were 
right.  After  a  few  years  more,  wine  was  made  from  it 
in  larger  quantities,  found  to  be  much  better  than  the 
first  imperfect  samples;  and  now  that  despised  and  con- 
demned grape  is  the  great  variety  for  red  wine,  equal,  if 
not  superior  to  the  best  Burgundy  and  Port;  a  wine  of 
which  good  judges,  heavy  importers  of  the  best  Euro- 
pean wines  too,  will  tell  you  that  it  has  not  its  equal 
among  all  the  foreign  red  wines,  which  has  already 
saved  the  lives  of  thousands  of  suffering  children,  men, 
and  women,  and,  therefore,  one  of  the  greatest  blessings 
an  all -merciful  God  has  ever  bestowed  upon  suffering 
humanity.  This  despised  grape  is  now  the  rage,  and 


80  THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

500,000  of  the  plants  could  have  been  obtained.  Need 
I  name  it?  It  is  the  Norton's  Virginia.  Truly,  'great 
oaks  from  little  acorns  grow ! '  and  I  boldly  prophecy 
to-day  that  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  thousands 
upon  thousands  of  our  hillsides  will  be  covered  with  its 
luxuriant  foliage,  and  its  purple  juice  become  one  of 
the  exports  to  Europe,  provided,  always,  that  we  do  not 
grow  so  fond  of  it  as  to  drink  it  all.  I  think  that  this 
is  preeminently  a  Missouri  grape.  Here  it  seems  to 
have  found  the  soil  in  which  it  nourishes  best.  I  have 
seen  it  in  Ohio,  but  it  does  not  look  there  as  if  it  was 
the  same  grape.  And  why  should  it?  They  drove  it 
from  them  and  discarded  it  in  its  youth;  we  fostered  it, 
and  do  you  not  think,  dear  reader,  there  sometimes  is 
gratitude  in  plants  as  well  as  men?  Other  states  may 
plant  it  and  succeed  with  it,  too,  to  a  certain  extent, 
but  it  will  cling  with  the  truest  devotion  to  those  lo- 
calities where  it  was  cared  for  in  its  youth." 

In  1858,  Husmann  received  from  William  Robert 
Prince,  the  nurseryman  of  Flushing,  Long  Island, 
another  grape,  the  Cynthiana,  which  is  so  like  the 
Norton's  Virginia  as  to  be  almost  indistinguishable 
from  it.  "This  grape  promises  fair  to  become  a  dan- 
gerous rival  to  Norton's  Virginia,"  writes  Husmann 
in  1865.  But  the  Norton  was  too  firmly  established 
to  be  supplanted  by  the  newcomer,  although  the  two 
varieties  are  usually  mentioned  together  when  one 
speaks  of  wine  making  in  the  middle  South.  This 
Cyuthiana  is  understood  to  have  been  picked  up  in  the 
wild  in  Arkansas. 

Now,  what  are  these  southern  wine -grapes, — Her- 
bemont,  Le  Noir,  Norton's  Virginia,  Cynthiana,  and 
all  their  kin?  To  what  species  do  they  belong?  As 


THE     HERBEMONT     TYPE  81 

usual,  opinions  are  divided.  Practically  all  authors 
are  agreed  that  the  Norton's  Virginia  and  Cynthiana 
tribe  is  a  direct  offshoot  of  the  wild  summer -grape 
( Vitis  cestivalis,  Fig.  16)  of  the  Middle  states  and  the 
South.  The  Herbemont  and  Le  Noir  have  been  held 
by  most  writers  to  have  been  descended  from  the  same 
wild  species,  but  our  contemporaneous  student  of  the 
genus,  T.  V.  Munson,  derives  them  from  an  unrecog- 
nized and  undescribed  European  species.  "The  Her- 
bemont as  'Brown  French,'  and  Le  Noir  or  Jacques 
as  'Blue  French,'  he  has  traced,"  writes  Munson  of 
his  own  studies,  "back  through  the  Bourquin  family 
of  Savannah,  Georgia,  to  their  bringing  to  Georgia 
in  its  early  settlement  over  150  years  ago  from  South 
France.  ******  jn  nonor  of  Gugie  Bour- 
quin, who  so  well  assisted  me  to  trace  out  the  origin, 
in  this  country,  of  Herbemont  and  Le  Noir,  I  named 
the  group  as  a  new  species,  Vitis  Bourquiniana."  With 
all  the  uncertainties  and  gaps  in  the  records  and  tra- 
ditions of  events  pertaining  to  the  cultivation  of  plants, 
and  with  the  constant  intervention  of  seedlings  and 
new  varieties,  great  dependence  cannot  be  placed  upon 
the  historical  genealogy  of  the  grape.  The  difficulty 
is  all  the  greater  because  the  species  of  grapes  are 
themselves  so  variable  and  so  like  one  another,  that 
errors  can  occur  in  the  records  almost  before  one's 
eyes.  The  student  must  rely  more  upon  the  botanical 
features  of  the  plants  than  upon  the  histories  of  them. 
For  myself,  while  admitting  that  my  facilities  for  the 
study  of  the  question  have  been  less  than  those  of 
Munson,  I  am  convinced  that  this  Herbemont  tribe  is 
an  ameliorated  form  of  the  native  summer- grape,  Vitis 
cestivalis.  Some  of  the  varieties  may  be  hybrids  of 


Fig.  16.    Summer  grape.     Vitis  cestivalis.    (From  Munson.) 


VITIS    BOUBQUINIANA  8<J 

Vitis  cestivalis  and  the  European  wine -grape.  It  is 
very  likely  that  some  of  these  varieties,  perhaps  even 
the  Herbemont  itself,  may  have  been  brought  from 
Europe;  but  if  full  records  had  been  made  of  the  early 
introductions  of  American  plants  into  southern  Europe 
by  the  returning  of  the  emigrant  ships  and  by  other 
vessels,  it  is  equally  likely  that  we  should  find  that 
our  native  summer- grape  had  been  sent  to  the  Old 
World.  At  all  events,  it  is  unassumable  that  a  native 
grape,  distributed  through  the  Mediterranean  region, 
could  have  escaped  for  centuries  the  critical  search  of 
European  botanists  and  the  knowledge  of  hundreds  of 
generations  of  vignerons,  to  be  discovered  at  last  trans- 
planted in  the  New  World.  This  southern  family  of 
wine- grapes  is  not  further  removed  from  Vitis  cestivalis 
than  the  Concord  and  some  other  common  fox -grapes 
are  removed  from  Vitis  Labrusca;  and  the  botanical 
features  of  the  family  seem  to  me  to  be  distinctly  those 
of  Vitis  cestivalis.  Mr.  Munson  has  raised  plants  which 
he  considers  to  belong  to  his  Vitis  Bourquiniana  from 
seeds  which  he  obtained  from  Spain;  but  the  speci- 
mens which  I  have  seen  of  these  plants  seem  to  me 
to  be  only  forms  of  the  European  wine -grape,  Vitis 
vinifera* 

Still  another  native  grape  must  have  a  conspicuous 
place  in  this  history.  It  is  the  Scuppernoug,  a  direct 
offspring  of  the  curious  Muscadine  grape  (  Vitis  rotun- 
<1  i folia,  Fig.  17),  of  the  South.  It  is  said  that  the 
Scuppernong  was  discovered  on  Roanoke  Island,  North 
Carolina,  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's  colony,  and  that  the 

The  student  of  this  southern  type  of  crapes  should  consult  the  writings  of 
Engelmann  and  Munson.  The  best  and  most  recent  presentation  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  group  by  Munson  is  to  be  found  in  the  "Texas  Farm  and 
Ranch  "  for  February  8,  1896. 


84 


THE     EVOLUTION     OF     OUR    NATIVE     FRUITS 


original  vine  is  still  in  existence.  The  Muscadine  type 
of  grape  differs  from  other  species  in  having  a  tight, 
non- shredding  bark,  unforked  tendrils,  a  very  long 
growth  of  vine,  very  late  bloom,  and  few -fruited  clus- 
ters of  globular,  thick-skinned,  musky -tasted  fruits. 


Fig.  17.    The  native  Muscadine  gr 


Vitis  rotundifolia. 


It  grows  wild  from  Maryland  southwards,  but  it  reaches 
its  greatest  perfection  south  of  Virginia.  The  fruits 
are  purple -black,  except  in  the  Scuppernong,  which  is 
yellowish.  This  variety  bears  four  to  six  large  grapes 
in  a  cluster,  which  fall  to  the  ground  as  they  ripen. 
The  Scuppernong  has  long  been  highly  esteemed  in  the 
South,  for  although  the  quality  is  far  inferior  to  that  of 
the  Catawba  in  the  opinion  of  most  persons,  it  makes 
excellent  wine,  and  it  is  a  regular  and  abundant  bearer; 


THE    SCUPPERNONG  85 

and  those  who  become  accustomed  to  it  are  fond  of  its 
sweet  and  perfumed  berries.  Sidney  Weller,  of  Brink- 
leyville,  North  Carolina,  extolled  the  Scuppernong  to  the 
Commissioner  of  Patents  in  1853,  as  the  "grape  of 
grapes"  for  the  South.  At  the  State  Fair,  at  Raleigh, 
he  had  "  exhibited  Scuppernoug  grapes  four  inches  in 
circumference,  unparalleled  in  size;  and  no  mean  judges 
of  wine,  from  different  parts  of  the  country,  pronounced 
my  'Scuppernong  hock'  the  best  of  wine."  Mr.  Wel- 
ler's  plantation,  which  appears  to  have  been  composed 
of  Scuppernongs,  is  described  as  follows:  "The  re- 
sult of  my  vineyard  enterprise  and  industry  therein, 
is  about  a  dozen  acres  of  flourishing  vines,  mostly  on 
scaffolding,  or  as  canopies,  covering  continuously  with 
branches  (and  when  in  bearing,  with  leaves  and  fruit) 
overhead,  from  8  to  10  feet  high,  and  nothing  is  seen 
between  these  canopies  and  the  ground  but  main  stems 
of  the  vines,  and  the  posts  or  rock  pillars  to  support 
the  frame -work  above.  My  annual  yield  of  wine  has 
been  as  high  as  60  barrels  ;  besides  entertaining  hun- 
dreds of  visitors  at  25  cents  each  entrance,  and  50 
cents  per  gallon  for  select  grapes  gathered  to  carry 
away.  My  vineyard  is  the  largest,  I  learn,  in  the 
South,  and  I  am  encouraged  to  enlarge  it  every  year." 

Dr.  Peter  Wylie,  of  North  Carolina,  is  said  to  have 
succeeded  in  securing  hybrids  of  the  Scuppernong  with 
other  species,  but  they  were  lost.  Of  late  years,  T.  V. 
Munson  has  taken  up  the  problem,  and  has  several 
hybrids  between  this  species  and  the  Herbemont  type. 
In  1868,  J.  Van  Buren  printed  a  small  book  upon  "The 
Scuppernong  Grape,"  at  Memphis. 

In  all  this  various  history,  we  have  seen  that  four 
species  of  grapes  have  been  chiefly  concerned  in  the 


86     THE  EVOLUTION  OP  OUR  NATIVE  FRUITS 

evolution  of  the  immense  commercial  viticulture  of 
Eastern  America,  and  all  these  species  are  native  to  the 
country.  They  are  the  fox -grape  (Vitis  Labrusca) ,  the 
summer -grape  (Vitis  cestivalis) ,  the  Muscadine  (Vitis 
rotundifolia ) ,  and  the  river-bank  grape  (Vitis  vulpina) . 
Other  native  species  have  been  concerned  in  the  creation 
of  our  viticulture,  and  still  others  promise  much  to  the 
future  experimenter ;  but  enough  has  now  been  said 
to  acquaint  my  reader  with  some  of  the  salient  features 
of  the  rise  of  our  common  varieties  of  grapes.  I  shall 
add  to  the  chapter  a  list  of  our  native  species  of 
grapes,  with  some  remarks  respecting  their  economic 
importance,  and  to  that  list  and  the  catalogue  of 
books,  the  student  who  desires  to  explore  the  subject 
is  referred. 

The  grape -growing  of  eastern  America  has  increased 
enormously  in  recent  years,  largely  under  the  stimulus 
of  the  Concord.  We  have  already  had  Rafinesque's 
record  of  the  vineyards  of  1830  (page  49),  and  we  have 
had  statistics  of  the  acreage  about  Cincinnati  (page 
63) .  In  closing  this  part  of  our  subject,  we  will  find 
it  of  interest  to  take  a  rapid  sweep  of  the  growth  of 
the  industry.  In  1852,  Robert  Buchanan  made  the 
following  survey  of  the  vineyards  "in  the  United 
States"  which  were  planted  for  wine -making  purposes: 
"The  Ohio  River  is  already  called  the  'Rhine  of  Amer- 
ica,' and  Cincinnati  the  center  of  the  grape  region  in 
this  valley.  Within  twenty  miles  around  the  city,  more 
than  1,200  acres  are  planted  in  vineyards — at  Ripley 
and  Maysville  above,  about  100  acres — at  Vevay, 
Charleston,  and  Louisville  below,  over  250  acres  are  in 
vine  culture; — making  1,550  acres  for  the  Ohio  Valley 
alone,  which  is  a  low  estimate. 


EXTENT    OF    THE    INDUSTRY  87 

"At  Hermann,  Mo.,  about  forty  or  fifty  acres  are  in 
vineyards;  and  in  the  vicinity  of  St.  Louis,  and  some 
other  parts  of  the  state,  probably  twenty  or  thirty  acres 
more;  a  few  at  Belleville,  111.,  and  elsewhere  in  that 
state.  Near  Reading,  Pa.,  several  vineyards  are  planted 
and  some  excellent  wines  made.  In  North  and  South 
Carolina,  the  Scuppernong  wines  have  been  made  for 
many  years,  but  the  number  of  acres  in  grape  culture 
is  to  the  writer  unknown.  A  few  vinej^ards  are  in  cul- 
tivation in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia — 
and  Burlington,  New  Jersey;  but  more  with  a  view  to 
supply  the  market  with  grapes  than  to  make  wine. 
Efforts  have  been  made  in  the  interior  of  Kentucky,  in 
Tennessee,  in  western  New  York,  and  on  the  southern 
shore  and  islands  of  Lake  Erie,  to  cultivate  the  vine 
for  making  wine,  but  sufficient  time  has  not  yet  elapsed 
for  a  fair  trial."  The  United  States  census  returns  for 
1840  gave  the  wine  crop  as  124,734  gallons.  In  1850 
it  was  221,249  gallons.  The  census  of  1890  returns  a 
total  grape  acreage  in  the  United  States  of  401,261 
acres.  Of  this  area,  213,230  acres  were  in  California, 
and  are,  therefore,  outside  our  present  discussion,  for 
the  Pacific  slope  grows  the  Old  World  wine  grapes,  not 
the  ameliorated  natives.  Nearly  200,000  acres,  then, 
were  devoted  to  native -grape  culture  and  these  yielded 
9,655,905  gallons  of  wine  and  225,636  tons  of  table 
grapes.  Western  New  York, — comprising  the  central 
lakes,  or  Catawba  districts,  and  the  Chautauqua  county 
or  Concord  district— is  the  heaviest  producer  of  any 
like  area.  In  1890,  New  York  state  produced  2,528,250 
gallons  of  wine  and  60,687  tons  of  table  grapes;  and 
these  figures  are  closely  seconded  by  Ohio  and  Missouri. 
In  1894,  the  grape  acreage  of  western  New  York  was 


88  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

estimated  at  58,000  acres.  These  are  astounding  figures, 
when  one  considers  that  a  century  ago  profitable  grape- 
culture  was  impossible  in  the  country,  and  that  many 
men  now  living  have  seen  the  introduction  of  most  of 
the  varieties  of  grapes  which  are  successfully  grown; 
and  all  the  varieties  have  been  bred  directly  or  indi- 
rectly from  the  unpromising  vines  which  grow  wild 
in  our  own  fields  and  woods. 


Why  Did  the  Early    Vine  Experiments  Fail  f 

The  reader  has  no  doubt  been  curious  to  know, 
from  the  outset,  why  the  early  attempts  to  grow  the 
European  grape  had  resulted  in  such  disastrous  fail- 
ure; and  now  that  we  are  approaching  the  end  of  our 
narrative,  I  shall  proceed  at  once  to  gratify  his  curi- 
osity. The  failure  was  the  result  of  an  obscure  sick- 
ness which  caused  the  leaves  to  die  and  drop,  and  the 
grapes  to  rot.  There  was  just  enough  indefiniteness 
and  speculation  about  these  diseases  to  make  the  early 
grape  literature  attractive,  but  in  these  impertinent 
days,  when  we  have  dragged  the  whole  panorama  of 
nature  across  the  slide  of  a  microscope,  we  have  done 
away  with  the  mystery,  and  speak  of  these  diseases 
familiarly  as  the  downy  mildew  and  black -rot, — or, 
to  be  exact,  as  Peronospora  viticola  and  Lcestadia 
Bidwellii.  If  these  Latin  epithets  had  been  in- 
vented in  the  days  of  Dufour  and  his  contemporaries, 
imagination  would  have  been  squelched,  and  all  the 
naive  and  delightful  writing  about  the  behavior  of  the 
electric  fluid,  the  strange  influences  of  the  different 
soils,  the  vagaries  of  the  seasons,  the  curious  effects  of 


THE    GRAPE    DISEASES  89 

modes  of  propagation,  and  the  like,  would  have  been 
lost  to  future  generations! 

Some  of  the  failure  was  also  due  to  the  root -louse 
or  phylloxera,  but  it  was  probably  chiefly  the  result 
of  the  incursions  of  the  fungous  disorders  mentioned 
in  the  last  paragraph.  The  singular  thing  about 
all  these  troubles  is  that  they  are  native  Americans. 
From  time  unknown,  they  have  preyed  upon  the  native 
grapes;  but  they  were  not  serious  upon  these  natives, 
because  all  the  most  amenable  types  of  grapes  had  long 
since  perished  in  the  struggle  for  existence,  and  the 
types  which  now  persist  are  necessarily  those  which 
are,  in  their  very  make-up  or  constitution,  almost  im- 
mune from  injury,  or  are  least  liable  to  attack.  The 
mildew,  for  example,  finds  little  to  encourage  it  in  the 
tough  and  woolly  leaf  of  the  fox -grape,  and  the  phyl- 
loxera finds  tough  rations  on  the  hard,  cord -like  roots 
of  any  of  our  eastern  species  of  grapes.  But  an  un- 
naturalized  and  unsophisticated  foreigner,  being  unused 
to  the  enemy  and  undefended,  falls  a  ready  victim;  or 
if  the  enemy  is  transported  to  a  foreign  country,  the 
same  thing  occurs.  These  diseases  are  evidently  not 
native  to  our  Pacific  coast  region,  and  the  European 
wine -grape  was  early  introduced  there  about  the  mis- 
sions of  the  Franciscans,  and  it  has  thrived  until  the 
present  day.  In  fact,  the  grape  industry  of  California 
is  like  to  that  of  Europe, — chiefly  wine  and  raisins, — 
and  is  built  upon  the  Old  World  wine -grape  ( Vitis 
vinifera) ;  and  for  this  reason  I  have  omitted,  in  the 
previous  account,  all  reference  to  our  Pacific  grape- 
culture.  But  the  phylloxera  is  now  introduced  upon 
the  Pacific  coast,  and  is  doing  much  mischief. 

The  mildew  and  black -rot  and  phylloxera  have  all 


90  THE     EVOLUTION     OF     OUR     NATIVE     FRUITS 

been  introduced  into  Europe,  where  they  have  wrought 
widespread  havoc.  I  quote  Lodeman's  account  of 
the  introduction  of  these  fungi,  in  his  "Spraying  of 
Plants:" 

"The  mildew  was  first  discovered  in  France  in  1878.  Millardet 
saw  it  in  September  of  that  year  upon  some  American  grape 
seedlings  growing  in  the  nursery  of  the  Societe  d'Agriculture  de 
la  Gironde,  and  Plachon  at  the  same  time  recognized  it  on  the 
leaves  of  Jaequez  grapes  at  Coutras,  and  also  received  it  from 
various  departments  of  Lot -et- Garonne,  and  of  Rhone.  The  dis- 
ease spread  rapidly,  and  was  so  destructive  that  in  1882  the  fruit 
in  many  vineyards  was  almost  entirely  destroyed.  The  climate  of 
Prance  appears  to  be  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  growth  of  this 
mildew,  which  flourishes  as  well  upon  the  varieties  of  Vitis  vinif- 
era  as  upon  our  American  species.  In  moist  seasons  it  is  fully  as 
energetic  as  in  America,  or  even  more  so.  The  leaves  fall  from 
the  vines,  and  the  grapes  are  thus  prevented  from  ripening  prop- 
erly. Even  in  cases  in  which  the  vines  do  not  lose  all  their 
foliage,  a  partial  reduction  is  sufficient  to  decrease  the  amount  of 
sugar  in  the  grapes  to  such  an  extent  that  their  value  for  wine  is 
very  greatly  lessened.  Many  growers  did  not  at  first  realize  the 
seriousness  of  this  disease.  In  some  vineyards  it  even  obtained  a 
firm  foothold  without  being  noticed,  for  the  portions  of  the  fungus 
which  are  on  the  exterior  of  the  leaves  are  borne  on  the  under 
side.  When,  however,  it  became  established  in  a  certain  district, 
all  doubts  regarding  its  seriousness  vanished,  and  the  vineyardists 
found  themselves  confronted  by  a  disease  which  not  only  threat- 
ened to  destroy  their  vines,  but  which  gave  unmistakable  proof 
of  its  power  to  do  so.  The  American  disease  of  grapes  commonly 
known  as  black-rot  was  first  discovered  in  the  vineyards  of  France 
in  August,  1885.  Mr.  Ricard,  the  steward  of  an  estate  situated 
at  the  gates  of  the  small  town  of  Ganges,  at  the  borders  of 
1'Herault,  was  the  first  to  call  attention  to  the  presence  of  this 
fungus.  He  saw  that  his  grapes  turned  brown,  then  black,  while 
still  remaining  upon  the  vine.  He  sent  some  of  these  diseased 
grapes  to  the  viticultural  laboratory  of  1'Eeole  de  Montpellier, 
where  Messrs.  Viala  and  Ravaz  recognized  the  parasite.  They 
went  to  the  affected  vineyard,  and  saw  that  only  about  thirty 


THE     PHYLLOXERA  91 

hectares  in  the  plain  of  Ganges  showed  diseased  grapes.  In 
these  vineyards  the  harvest  was  reduced  about  one-half.  Imme- 
diate and  energetic  steps  were  taken  to  exterminate  the  fungus, 
but  in  1886  it  again  appeared.  The  season  proved  to  be  dry, 
however,  and  very  little  damage  was  done.  The  area  of  distri- 
bution was,  nevertheless,  considerably  extended.  On  July  25, 
1887,  Prillieux  received  diseased  grapes  from  Azen,  in  Lot-et- 
Garonue,  and  was  directed  by  the  minister  of  agriculture  to 
proceed  to  the  infected  district.  He  found  that  black-rot  existed 
throughout  the  entire  valley  of  the  Garonne  as  far  as  Aiguillon. 
In  some  vineyards  it  was  so  well  established  that  there  appeared 
to  be  no  doubt  that  the  disease  had  been  present  at  least  a  year 
before  its  discovery  in  1'Herault;  it  was  consequently  impossible 
to  determine  the  first  place  of  infection  in  France.  The  disease 
was  new,  and  at  the  first  not  very  serious,  so  that  its  presence 
had  been  overlooked  perhaps  for  more  than  one  year." 

But  the  greatest  consternation  has  been  caused,  in 
European  countries,  by  the  furious  spread  of  the  phyl- 
loxera. This  insect  was  introduced  into  France  in 
1863  on  vines  from  the  United  States,  but  it  was  not 
discovered  until  some  years  later.  About  1865,  the 
root  disease  which  it  produces  began  to  attract  atten- 
tion, and  so  violent  was  its  spread  that  the  French 
government  expended  large  sums  to  stamp  it  out,  and, 
finally,  in  1874,  a  reward  of  300,000  francs  was  offered 
for  a  satisfactory  remedy.  About  1870,  the  cause  of 
the  disease  was  determined;  and  then  it  was  found 
that  the  root -louse  is  the  normal  form  of  an  insect 
which  also  produces  galls  upon  the  leaves.  This  leaf- 
gall  form  of  the  insect  was  described  in  New  York 
by  Dr.  Asa  Fitch  in  1854.  It  is  not  our  purpose  to 
follow  the  fortunes  of  the  phylloxera  in  its  triumphant 
march  over  Europe.  It  is  enough  to  say  that  there 
are  no  remedies  which  can  be  universally  applied.  In 
this  dilemma,  the  French  turned  to  America  to  dis- 


92  THE    EVOLUTION     OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

cover  why  the  phylloxera  is  not  a  scourge  in  the  land 
of  its  birth.  The  cause  was  found  in  the  practical 
immunity  of  the  native  vines.  At  once,  there  was  a 
demand  for  cuttings  of  our  wild  phylloxera -resistant 
grapes.  But  some  of  the  cuttings  would  not  grow, 
whereas  others  grew  without  difficulty.  Upon  investi- 
gation, it  was  found  that  cuttings  of  two  species  had 
been  sent  as  one  species,  and  the  result  of  the  inquiry 
has  been  to  clearly  distinguish  two  native  grapes  which 
theretofore  had  been  much  confounded.  These  are  the 
frost -grape  (Vitis  cordifolia)  and  the  river -bank  grape 
(  Vitis  vulpina,  or  V.  riparia) .  The  latter  is  now  widely 
used  in  Europe  as  stocks  upon  which  to  graft  the  wine- 
grape;  and  so  it  has  come  that  the  species  which  has 
produced  nothing  better  in  the  way  of  fruit  than  the 
Clinton  (page  75)  is  now  a  corner-stone  of  the 
viticulture  of  the  Old  World.  Other  native  species 
have  contributed  to  the  phylloxera -resistant  stocks  of 
Europe,  but  this  species  is  chief.  The  fourth  edition 
of  the  Descriptive  Catalogue  of  Bush  &  Son  &  Meiss- 
ner  has  the  following  remarks  of  this  use  of  American 
vine -stocks:  "Already  millions  of  American  grape- 
vines are  growing  in  France,  hundreds  of  thousands 
in  Spain,  Italy,  Hungary,  etc.  California  also  im- 
ported many  cuttings  of  riparia  [river -bank  grape] 
vines  to  graft  thereon  their  European  (or  vinifera) 
sorts,  which  succeed  there  on  our  phylloxera -resisting 
stocks.  In  February,  1894,  Senator  Fair  purchased 
from  us  half  a  million  of  such  cuttings  for  his  new 
1,000 -acre  vineyards  near  Lakeville,  California." 

All  the  old  accounts,  however,  seem  to  show  that 
the  chief  cause  of  the  failure  of  the  European  vines 
in  America  was  fungous  disease.  One  of  the  very 


DUFOUR'S  ACCOUNT  OF  THE   DISEASES          93 

earliest  accounts  of  this  mischievous  disorder  is  John- 
son's, in  1806,  although  his  entire  discussion  of  it  is 
as  follows:  "The  Mildew  sometimes  attacks  the  grapes 
and  fruit,  when  the  vine  has  been  planted  in  too  wet 
a  situation,  or  when  the  weeds  are  suffered  to  prevail, 
but  never  when  the  vineyard  has  a  gentle  declivity." 
The  first  explicit  account  of  the  vine  diseases  which 
I  know  was  made  twenty  years  later.  "The  different 
diseases  that  I  have  seen  afflicting  vines  are  not  nu- 
merous," writes  John  James  Dufour,  in  1826.  "They 
may  be  denominated,  1st.  the  Mildew,  called  Charbon 
or  Tache,  by  the  French,  whose  meaning  is,  by  Char- 
bon, burnt  to  a  coal,  or  like  a  coal;  and  by  Tache,  a 
black  speck:  2d.  Unripeness  of  the  young  wood, 
which  causes  it  to  be  frostbitten:  3rd.  Short  jointed, 
called  Sorbatzi,  by  the  Swizzers:  4th.  Exhaustion, 
by  overbearing."  Only  one  of  these  classes,  the  mil- 
dew, need  attract  our  attention  at  this  time.  Dufour 
describes  it  as  follows:  "The  Mildew,  or  Charbon,  is 
the  most  severe  disease  that  sickeneth  grapevines. 
One  of  the  first  symptoms  is  a  mouldy  and  black  dust 
that  appears  some  time  on  the  under  surface  of  the 
leaves  in  the  months  of  July  and  August,  and  grows 
gradually  more  intense.  Black  specks  then  appear  on 
the  young  parts  of  the  shoots,  and  on  the  fruit,  as  if 
made  with  a  hot  bit  of  iron :  the  leaves  then  crisp  and 
fall,  the  fruit  becomes  black,  and  dries,  and  what  fruit 
seems  to  escape  the  sickness,  will  not  ripen  well,  and 
remain  uncommonly  sour;  the  young  shoots  will  be 
extremely  brittle,  and  the  pith  black."  It  is  very  likely 
that  two  diseases  are  confounded  in  this  descrip- 
tion. The  account  of  the  leaves  suggests  the  downy 
mildew;  but  the  description  of  the  affected  shoots  and 


94  THE     EVOLUTION     OF     OUR     NATIVE     FRUITS 

fruit  is  more  likely  that  of  the  black -rot.  B.  T.  Gal- 
loway, Chief  of  the  Division  of  Vegetable  Pathology  in 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  tells  me 
that  specimens  of  grapes  affected  with  "charbon,"  col- 
lected by  an  early  botanical  traveler  in  the  Ohio  Valley, 
have  the  black -rot. 

Alphonse  Loubat,  who  wrote  the  third  American 
grape  book  ("The  American  Vine  Dresser's  Guide,"  New 
York,  1827,  alternate  pages  English  and  French),  and 
who  made  an  experiment  at  grape  culture  on  Long 
Island,  was  also  overtaken  by  the  vine  diseases.  "Here 
he  strove,"  writes  Andrew  S.  Fuller,  in  the  "Record  of 
Horticulture"  for  1866,  "against  mildew  and  sun -scald 
for  several  years,  but  had  to  yield  at  last,  as  the  ele- 
ments were  too  much  for  human  exertions  to  overcome. 
An  old  resident  of  Brooklyn  related  to  the  writer,  a 
few  years  since,  many  incidents  connected  with  Lou- 
bat's  experiments  ;  one  of  which  was,  that  to  prevent 
mildew  on  the  fruit,  each  bunch  was  enveloped  in 
paper ;  consequently  they  had  to  be  uncovered  when 
exhibited  to  visitors.  This,  when  the  grapes  were 
ripening,  consumed  most  of  Loubat's  time."  Spooner 
says  that  Loubat  "planted  a  vineyard  of  forty  acres  at 
New  Utrecht,  Long  Island,  which  had  150,000  vines  of 
various  sizes,  and  for  some  j^ears  flattered  himself  with 
hopes,  which  resulted  in  disappointment."  Spooner' s 
account  of  his  own  experiments  illustrates  the  common 
experience  with  the  foreign  grape,  and  also  affords 
further  evidence  that  fungous  disease  was  the  chief 
cause  of  the  disasters:  "In  the  year  1827  I  planted 
fifty  foreign  vines,  some  of  which  were  from  France, 
and  obtained  from  Mr.  Parmentier  and  Mr.  Loubat— 
others  were  from  Germany,  and  obtained  from  Mr. 


EARLY    ACCOUNTS    OP     DISEASES  95 

Knudsen.  In  four  years  I  was  able  to  exhibit  five 
kinds  of  fine  grapes  at  the  horticultural  exhibition  of 
New  York  at  Niblo's  Garden;  but  the  vines  produced 
few  good  bunches,  and  very  soon  none  at  all.  The 
vines  and  shoots  continued  to  grow  for  several  years, 
but  the  fruit  was  mouldy  and  black  before  the  period 
of  ripening,  and  thus  were  worthless." 

With  the  extension  of  the  grape -planted  acres, 
the  diseases  attacked  the  varieties  of  native  origin, 
like  the  Catawba  and  Isabella,  and  they  finally  ruined 
the  grape  industry  of  the  Cincinnati  region.  The  rot 
of  grapes  had  begun  to  attract  much  attention  about 
Cincinnati  previous  to  1850.  In  1859,  Cist  made  the 
following  record  of  it:  "In  the  Ohio  Valley,  for  the 
last  three  or  four  years,  the  grape  crop  has  been  much 
injured  by  mildew  and  rot,  diseases  incident  to  bad 
seasons,  or  sudden  atmospheric  changes.  Many  reme- 
dies have  been  tried,  but  none  has  yet  been  found 
effectual  in  these  cases.  It  is  difficult,  by  any  mode  of 
vineyard  cultivation,  pruning  or  training,  to  conquer 
disease  arising  from  atmospheric  causes."  Probably 
the  first  published  specific  for  this  rot  was  the  follow- 
ing, which  was  sent  to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  in 
1853,  by  Anthony  Miller,  of  Portland,  Calloway  county, 
Missouri:  "My  observations  have  led  me  to  the  be- 
lief that  the  '  rot '  in  the  grape  depends  on  a  weakness 
in  the  vine,  even  when  the  ground  is  rich  and  well 
manured.  This  disease,  consisting  only  in  weakness, 
befalls  the  vines  soon  after  they  bloom.  Following 
this  notion,  I  thought  of  a  remedy,  which  consists  of 
the  following:  I  take  fresh  cow  manure  (without 
straw,  leaves,  etc.,  being  mixed  with  it),  which  I  mix 
in  a  ditch,  or  in  a  large  hogshead,  with  slops,  wash- 


96  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

water,  etc.  I  stir  it  once  a  day  until  it  begins  to  fer- 
ment, and  leave  it  standing  several  days,  and  then  it 
is  ready  for  use.  When  I  have  no  cow  manure,  any 
other  animal  manure,  mixed  with  the  offals  of  tobacco, 
ashes,  lime,  and  rain-water,  will  answer  the  same  pur- 
pose. Of  this  fluid  I  pour  about  a  gallon  around  the 
roots  of  every  grape-vine,  making  a  small  ditch,  five 
or  six  inches  deep,  around  the  vine,  to  keep  the  fluid 
from  running  off.  When  it  has  soaked  into  the 
ground,  I  cover  up  the  ditch  with  earth.  A  month 
after  the  blooming  of  the  vine,  I  repeat  this  again.  In 
this  manner  I  have  kept  my  grapes  sound." 

It  was  thirty  years  after  this  mephitic  compound 
was  recommended  to  the  public,  that  the  first  and 
great  specific  for  the  mildew  and  black -rot — the  Bor- 
deaux mixture — was  perfected  by  the  illustrious  Mil- 
lardet  and  his  compeers,  in  France.  It  has  required 
the  travail  of  two  centuries  to  give  us  this  simple  mix- 
ture of  blue-stone  and  lime;  but  now  the  most  careless 
urchin  may  have  the  knowledge  which  Dufour,  Adlum, 
Loubat,  Buchanan,  Longworth,  and  all  the  rest,  would 
have  given  all  their  worldly  goods  to  possess! 

To  us,  the  black -rot  and  the  mildew  have  come  to 
be  subjects  of  secondary  importance.  We  hold  the 
secret  and  we  can  apply  the  remedy.  But  they  were 
serious  matters  in  the  old  days.  The  following  narra- 
tive, written  by  Longworth  in  1849,  is  proof  of  this, 
and  it  also  admirably  illustrates  the  common  adage 
that  "misfortunes  never  come  singly:" 

"My  oldest  vine -dresser,  Father  Ammen,  has  gone 
the  way  of  all  flesh,  and  I  regret  his  end.  He  was  a 
worthy  old  man.  Some  twelve  years  since,  he  lost  his 
wife,  and  deeply  regretted  her  loss.  He  assured  me, 


A  VINE -DRESSER'S   PLIGHT  97 

with  tears  in  his  eyes,  'she  was  just  so  good  in  the 
vineyard  as  one  man,  and  he  might  just  so  well  have 
lost  his  horse.'  He  got  a  second  wife,  but  she  was  of 
hasty  temper,  and  gave  the  old  man  as  good  as  he 
sent.  Finally,  she  told  him  if  he  would  give  her  five 
dollars,  she  would  leave  him,  and  never  see  him  more. 
'Give  you  five  dollars!'  said  the  old  man:  'I  will  do 
no  such  thing;  but  if  you  go  and  never  come  back,  I 
will  give  you  ten  dollars.'  The  money  was  paid,  and 
the  old  man  was  relieved  of  that  trouble;  but  one  that 
he  deemed  greater  came.  I  have  heretofore  said,  that 
after  being  my  tenant  ten  years,  he  was  ruined  by  sel- 
ling his  share  of  the  crop  for  eight  hundred  dollars. 
He  cleared  out;  went  to  the  north  part  of  the  state; 
bought  land,  and  planted  a  vineyard.  The  location 
was  too  far  north.  His  vines  were  killed,  and  he  came 
back  a  poor  man,  and  began  a  new  vineyard  on  a  farm 
of  mine,  adjoining  his  old  one,  on  which  his  son-in- 
law  has  resided  since  he  left  it.  This  year  his  vine- 
yard came  into  bearing,  and  the  old  man's  heart  re- 
joiced to  think  that  he  should  again  be  able  to  sit 
under  the  shade  of  his  favorite  tree,  and  enliven  his 
heart  with  wine  of  his  own  making.  But,  alas!  the 
rot  came,  and  blasted  his  prospects.  He  became  dis- 
pirited; which,  the  cholera  discovering,  a  few  days 
since,  seized  his  victim.  He  was  taken  to  the  house  of 
his  son-in-law  (for  he  lived  alone,  and  I  could  not 
prevail  on  him  to  take  a  Frau  for  the  third  time), 
when  they  urged  him  to  take  medicine,  but  he  refused. 
He  was  told  if  he  did  not,  in  a  few  hours  he  must  die. 
'What  I  care?'  said  the  old  man,  'I  take  none.  What 
I  want  to  live  for  ?  My  grapes  all  rotten ! '  A  few 
hours,  and  he  was  no  more.  Peace  to  his  ashes." 


98  THE     EVOLUTION     OP     OUR    NATIVE     FRUITS 


Synopsis    of    the    American    Species    of    Grapes 

If  America  is  a  land  of  grapes,  it  will  profit  us  to 
make  an  inventory  of  such  wild  types  as  botanists 
consider  to  be  distinct  enough  to  be  called  species. 
This  synopsis  is  reduced  and  adapted  from  the  au- 
thor's monograph  of  the  Vitaceae  in  Gray's  Synoptical 
Flora,  1897  (Vol.  i.,  Part  L,  Fascicle  ii.). 

VITIS.  The  Vine.  Grape-vine.  A  widespread  genus  in 
the  North  Temperate  zone,  richest  in  species  in  North  America. 
The  species  undergo  marked  adaptations  to  local  conditions,  and 
several  of  them  hybridize  freely,  so  that  the  study  of  them  is 
perplexing;  and  the  difficulty  is  increased  by  the  fact  that  the 
foliage  varies  in  character  on  different  parts  of  the  plant,  and 
herbarium  material  cannot  properly  represent  the  fruit.  The 
large  viticultural  interests  of  North  America,  outside  of  the  hot- 
houses and  the  Pacific  Slope  and  Mexico,  have  been  developed 
within  the  century  from  the  native  species  of  grapes  (chiefly 
Vitis  Labrusca  and  V.  cestivalis),  and  their  hybrids  with  the  Old 
World  wine -grape  (Vitis  vinif era) .  The  last  is  almost  exclusively 
grown  in  California,  and  is  sometimes  inclined  to  be  sponta- 
neous. The  genus  naturally  divides  itself,  in  North  America, 
into  two  groups, — the  muscadines,  and  the  true  grapes. 

I.  MUSCADINIA,  the  muscadines.  Bark  bearing  prominent 
lenticels,  never  shredding;  nodes  without  diaphragms;  tendrils 
simple;  flower-clusters  small  and  not  much  elongated;  berries 
usually  falling  singly  ;  seeds  oval  or  oblong,  without  a  distinct 
stipe-like  beak. 

Vitis  rotundifolia,  Michx.  (Muscadine,  Southern  Fox-grape,  Bui- 
lace  or  Bullit  or  Bull  Grape.)  Fig.  17,  page  84.  Vine  with 
hard,  warty  wood,  running  even  sixty  to  one  hundred  feet  over 
bushes  and  trees,  and  in  the  shade  often  sending  down  forking 
aerial  roots:  leaves  rather  small  to  medium  (2  to  6  inches 
long),  dense  in  texture  and  glabrous  both  sides  (sometimes 
pubescent  along  the  veins  beneath),  cordate-ovate  and  not 
lobed,  mostly  with  a  prominent  and  sometimes  an  acuminate 


THE   MUSCADINES  99 

point  (but  somewhat  contracted  above  the  termination  of  the 
two  main  side  veins),  the  under  surface  finely  reticulated 
between  the  veins,  the  teeth  and  the  apex  angular,  coarse 
and  acute,  the  basal  sinus  shallow,  broad  and  edentate  ; 
petiole  slender  and  (like  the  young  growth)  fine-scurfy,  about 
the  length  of  the  leaf -blade:  tendrils  (or  flower -clusters) 
discontinuous,  every  third  node  being  bare:  fruit-bearing 
clusters  smaller  than  the  sterile  ones,  and  ripening  from  three 
to  twenty  grapes  in  a  nearly  globular  bunch:  berries  falling 
from  the  cluster  when  ripe,  spherical  or  nearly  so  and  large 
(half  inch  to  inch  in  diameter),  with  very  thick  and  tough 
skin  and  a  tough,  musky  flesh,  dull  purple  in  color  without 
bloom  (in  the  Scuppernong  variety  silvery  amber-green), 
ripe  in  summer  and  early  autumn;  seeds  %-  to  %-inch  long, 
shaped  something  like  a  coffee  berry. — Grows  on  river  banks, 
swamps,  and  rich  woodlands  and  thickets,  S.  Delaware  to 
N.  Florida  and  west  to  Kansas  and  Texas.  Known  to  vine- 
yardists  chiefly  as  the  parent  of  the  Scuppernong.  Has  been 
hybridized  with  V.  Labrnsca,  V.  rupestris,  and  V.  vinifera. 

Vitis  Munsoniana,  Simpson.  (Mustang  Grape  of  Florida,  Bird  or 
Everbearing  Grape.)  Very  slender  grower,  preferring  to  run 
on  the  ground  or  over  low  bushes,  more  nearly  evergreen 
than  the  last,  flowering  more  or  less  continuously:  leaves 
smaller,  thinner,  and  more  shining,  more  nearly  circular  in 
outline  and  less  prominently  pointed;  the  teeth  broader  in 
proportion  to  the  blade,  and  more  open  or  spreading:  clus- 
ters larger  and  more  thyrse-like:  berries  a  half  smaller  than 
in  the  last,  and  often  more  numerous,  shining  black,  with 
a  more  tender  pulp,  acid  juice,  no  muskinesss,  and  thinner 
skin;  seeds  half  smaller  than  in  the  last. — Dry  woods  and 
sands,  Florida,  at  Jacksonville,  Lake  City,  and  southwards, 
apparently  the  only  grape  on  the  reef  keys;  also  in  the 
Bahamas.  Difficult  to  distinguish  from  V,  rotundifolia  in 
herbarium  specimens,  but  distinct  in  the  field!  Not  in  do- 
mestication. 

II.  EUVITIS,  the  true  grapes.  Bark  without  distinct  lenticels, 
on  the  old  wood  separating  in  long  thin  strips  and  fibers;  nodes 
provided  with  diaphragms ;  tendrils  forked;  flower-clusters  mostly 


100         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

large  and  elongated;  berries  usually  not  falling  singly,  but  tend- 
ing to  shrivel  and  hang  on  the  stem;    seeds  pyriform. 

A.  Green-leaved  grapes,  mostly  marked  at  maturity  by  absence 
of  prominent  white,  rusty,  or  blue  tomentum  or  scurf  or  con- 
spicuous bloom  on  the  leaves  beneath  (under  surface  some- 
times thinly  pubescent,  or  minute  patches  of  floccose  wool  in 
the  axils  of  the  veins,  or  perhaps  even  cobwebby);    the  foli- 
age mostly  thin:  tendrils  intermittent,  i.  e.,  every  third  joint 
bearing   no    tendrils    (or    inflorescence).       V.    cinerea    and    V. 
Arizonica   are    partial    exceptions,    and   might    be    looked   for 
in  A  A. 

B.  Vulpina-like    grapes,   characterized   by   thin   light   or  bright 
green    mostly   glossy   leaves    (which    are    generally    glabrous 
below   at  maturity  except,  perhaps,  in  the  axils  of  the  veins, 
and   in    V.  Champini),   with    a   long   or  at  least   a  prominent 
point,  and  usually  long  and  large,  sharp  teeth,  or  the  edges 
even  jagged. 

c.  Leaves  broader   than    long,   with   truncate -oblique   base    ( V. 

Treleasei  might  be  sought  here). 

Vitis  rupestris,  Scheele.  (Sand,  Sugar,  Rock,  Bush,  or  Mountain 
Grape.)  Shrub  2  to  6  feet  high,  or  sometimes  slightly  climb- 
ing, the  tendrils  few  or  even  none,  diaphragms  plane  and 
rather  thin:  leaves  reniform  to  reniform-ovate  (about  3  to  4 
inches  wide  and  two-thirds  as  high),  rather  thick,  smooth 
and  glabrous  on  both  surfaces  at  maturity,  marked  by  a  char- 
acteristic light  glaucescent  tint,  the  sides  turned  up  so  as  to 
expose  much  of  the  under  surface,  the  base  only  rarely  cut 
into  a  well  marked  sinus,  the  margins  very  coarsely  angle- 
toothed,  the  boldly  rounded  top  bearing  a  short,  abrupt  point, 
and  sometimes  two  lateral  teeth  enlarged  and  suggesting  lobes : 
stamens  in  fertile  flowers  recurved  laterally  or  rarely  ascend- 
ing, those  in  the  sterile  flowers  ascending:  cluster  small, 
slender,  open  and  branched:  berries  small  (%-  to  %-inch  in 
diameter),  purple-black  and  somewhat  glaucous,  pleasant- 
tasted,  ripe  in  late  summer;  seeds  small  and  broad. — Sandy 
banks,  low  hills  and  mountains,  District  of  Columbia  and 
S.  Pennsylvania  to  Tennessee,  Missouri,  and  S.  W.  Texas. 
One  or  two  varieties  in  cultivation,  and  it  hybridizes  freely. 
Promising  for  the  experimenter. 


THE     VULPINA    GRAPES  101 

Far.  dissecta,  Eggert,  is  a  form  with  more  ovate  leaves  and 
very  long  teeth,  and  a  strong  tendency  towards  irregular 
lobing. — Missouri. 

cc.  Leaves  ovate  in  outline,  with  a  mostly  well  marked   sinus. 

D.  Diaphragms  (in  the  joints  or  nodes)  thin:  young  shoots 
not  red;  leaves  not  deeply  lobed. 

Vitis  monticola,  Buckley.  (Sweet  Mountain  Grape.)  A  slender 
trailing  or  climbing  plant  (reaching  20  to  30  feet  in  height), 
with  very  long  and  slender  branches,  the  young  growth 
angled  and  floccose  (sometimes  glabrous),  the  diaphragms 
plane  and  rather  thin:  leaves  small  and  thin  (rarely  reaching 
4  inches  in  width,  and  generally  from  2  to  3  inches  high), 
cordate -ovate  to  triangular-ovate,  with  the  basal  sinus  rang- 
ing from  nearly  truncate-oblique  to  normally  inverted-U- 
shaped,  rather  dark  green  but  glossy  above  and  grayish  green 
below,  when  young  more  or  less  pubescent  or  even  cobwebby 
below,  the  blade  either  prominently  notched  on  either  upper 
margin  or  almost  lobed,  the  point  acute  and  often  prolonged, 
margins  irregularly  notched  with  smaller  teeth  than  in  V. 
rupestris:  clusters  short  and  broad,  much  branched:  berries 
medium  or  small  (averaging  about  %-inch  in  diameter), 
black  or  light  colored,  seedy,  sweet;  seeds  large  (about 
%-inch  long),  and  broad. — Limestone  hills  in  S.  W.  Texas. 
This  species  has  been  the  subject  cff  much  misunderstanding. 
Buckley's  description  seems  to  be  confused,  but  his  speci- 
mens of  V.  monticola  (in  Herb.  Acad.  Philad.)  are  clearly  the 
small-leaved  and  glabrous  species  here  designated.  See,  also, 
Viala,  "Une  Mission  Viticole  en  Amerique,"  1889,  67;  and 
V.  Berlandieri,  below.  The  species  has  no  value  in  its  fruit, 
but  it  may  be  useful  as  a  stock  on  limy  soils. 

Vitis  vulpina,  L.  (Riverbank  or  Frost  Grape.)  Fig.  15,  page  76. 
A  tall-climbing  plant,  with  a  bright  green  cast  to  the  foliage, 
normally  glabrous  young  shoots,  large  stipules,  and  very 
thin  diaphragms:  leaves  thin,  medium  to  large,  cordate- 
ovate,  with  a  broad  but  usually  an  evident  sinus,  mostly 
showing  a  tendency  (which  is  sometimes  pronounced)  to  three 
lobes,  generally  glabrous  and  bright  green  below,  but  the 
veins  and  their  angles  often  A'^DI^i'h'  HPiKgie8  var'- 


.  RY 
UNIVERSITY  Or  CALIFORNIA 


102         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

ously,  deeply  and  irregularly  toothed  and  sometimes  cut,  the 
teeth  and  the  long  point  prominently  acute:  fertile  flowers 
bearing  reclining  or  curved  stamens,  and  the  sterile  ones 
long  and  erect  or  ascending  stamens:  clusters  medium  to 
large  on  short  peduncles,  branched  (often  very  compound), 
the  flowers  sweet-scented:  berries  small  (less  than  %-inch 
in  diameter),  purple-black  with  a  heavy  blue  bloom,  sour 
and  usually  austere,  generally  ripening  late  (even  after  frost) ; 
seeds  rather  small  and  distinctly  pyriform.— New  Brunswick 
to  N.  Dakota,  Kansas,  and  Colorado,  and  south  to  W.  Virginia, 
Missouri,  and  N.  W.  Texas;  the  commonest  grape  in  the  north- 
ern states  west  of  New  England,  particularly  along  streams. 
Commonly  known  as  Fitis  riparia.  Variable  in  the  flavor 
and  maturity  of  the  fruit.  Forms  with  petioles  and  under 
surfaces  of  leaves  pubescent  sometimes  occur.  Occasionally 
hybridizes  with  V.  Labrusca  eastward,  the  hybrid  being  known 
by  the  tomentose  young  shoots  and  unfolding  leaves,  and  the 
darker  foliage  which  is  marked  with  rusty  tomentum  along 
the  veins  of  the  less  jagged  leaves.  Parent,  either  direct  or 
crossed,  of  Clinton,  Elvira,  Pearl,  and  others. 

Far.    prcecox,     Bailey,     is    the    June    grape    of    Missouri,    the 
little  sweet  fruits  ripening  in  July. 

In  a  note  attached  to  his  specimens  (now  at  the  Jardin  des 
Plantes,  Paris),  Michaux  speaks  of  this  as  being  the  species 
known  to  the  French  voyageurs  upon  the  Ohio  and  Missis- 
sippi: "  Fitis  riparia. — Vigne  des  battures  par  les  francais  qui 
voyagent  sur  1'Ohio  &  le  Misissipi,  parce  que  cette  espece 
eroit  sur  les  rochers  et  les  sables  inondes  annuellement,  par 
les  debordements.  Le  raisin  en  est  le  meilleur  de  tous  ceux 
qui  se  trouvent,  dans  1'Amerique  septentrionale.  L'on  ne 
trouve  nullement  cette  espece  a  Test  des  Monts  Alleganies, 
Ohio  &  Misissipi.  Le  raisin  est  meur  en  Aoust  et  croit  sur  les 
Isles  &  sur  les  Rochers  qui  bordent  les  Rivierres  Shavanon 
ou  Cumberland,  Cheroquis  ou  Tenassee,  ainsi  que  sur  les 
Rives  de  Green  River,  dans  1'Etat  de  Kentucky.  II  est  plus 
difficile  de  trouver  du  Raisin  sur  les  Isles  ou  plages  sablon- 
neuses  du  Misissippi  et  de  1'Ohio  parce  qu  elles  sont  trop 
longtemps  submergees." 

There  is  a  curious  confusion  respecting  the  name  of  this 


THE    VULPINA    GRAPES  103 

species.  Linnaeus  described  a  Ft  fa's  vulpina  ("fox-grape")  in 
I7.~>;i,  and  preserved  specimens  of  it  in  his  herbarium.  Our 
grapes  have  been  so  much  misunderstood  that  there  have 
been  various  guesses  at  the  identity  of  Linnaeus'  specimens. 
It  has  been  thought  that  they  represent  the  true  fox-grape, 
or  ntis  Labrusca.  Again  it  was  thought  that  they  are  the 
muscadine  type,  and  the  name  vulpina  was  once  used  in 
place  of  Michaux's  rotundifolia  (page  98).  Then  for  many 
years  the  name  was  dropped  altogether.  Finally  Planchon, 
the  most  recent  monographer  of  the  genus,  declared  Lin- 
naeus' specimens  to  be  the  Ft' fa's  riparia  of  Michaux,  although 
he  did  not  substitute  the  name  vulpina  for  the  more  recent 
ripai'ia.  Professor  Britton  later  examined  the  specimens,  and 
also  pronounced  them  to  be  V.  riparia.  In  the  above  mono- 
graph I  therefore  used  the  older  name  (V.  vulpina).  Since 
that  time,  however,  I  have  myself  examined  Linnaeus'  speci- 
mens in  London,  and  find  that  he  had  specimens  of  two  spe- 
cies under  the  name  of  vulpina.  On  one  sheet  are  two 
leaves,  one  marked  V.  rinifera  and  the  other  V.  vulpina, 
both  in  Linnaeus'  hand.  The  former  is  the  wine -grape  (V. 
rinifera),  and  the  latter  is  the  river-bank  grape  (  V.  riparia). 
Another  herbarium  sheet,  however,  has  a  large  flowering 
specimen,  labelled,  in  Linnaeus'  hand,  F.  vulpina,  and  this 
is  the  frost-grape  (  V.  cordifolia).  It  would  have  been  better 
to  have  taken  this  latter  specimen  as  Linnaeus'  type,  and  to 
have  made  the  name  vulpina  supplant  cordifolia;  but  since 
the  other  disposition  has  been  made  of  the  case,  I  shall  not 
make  the  change. 

1'itis  Treleasei,  Munson.  Plant  shrubby  and  much  branched, 
climbing  little,  the  small  and  mostly  short  (generally  shorter 
than  the  leaves)  tendrils  deciduous  the  first  year  unless  find- 
ing support,  internodes  short,  the  diaphragms  twice  thicker 
(about  -j^-inch)  than  in  V.  vulpina  and  shallow-bicon- 
cave: stipules  less  than  one  quarter  as  large  as  in  V. 
vulpina:  leaves  large  and  green,  very  broad-ovate,  or  even 
reniform- ovate  (often  wider  than  long),  thin,  glabrous  and 
shining  on  both  surfaces,  the  basal  sinus  very  broad  and 
open  and  making  no  distinct  angle  with  the  petiole,  the 
margin  unequally  notch-toothed  (not  jagged,  as  in  F.  vul~ 


104         THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

pina),  and  indistinctly  3-lobed,  the  apex  much  shorter  than 
in  V.  vulpina:  fertile  flowers  with  very  short  recurved  sta- 
mens, sterile  ones  with  ascending  stamens:  cluster  small  (2 
to  3  inches  long):  the  berries  %-inch  or  less  thick,  black 
with  a  thin  bloom,  ripening  three  weeks  later  than  V.  vulpina 
when  grown  in  the  same  place;  thin-skinned;  pulp  juicy 
and  sweet;  seeds  small. — Brewster  county,  S.  W.  Texas,  and 
New  Mexico  to  Bradshaw  Mountains,  Arizona.  Little  known, 
and  possibly  a  dry-country  form  of  V.  vulpina.  In  habit  it 
suggests  V.  Arizonica,  var.  glabra,  from  which  it  is  distin- 
guished, among  other  things,  by  its  decidedly  earlier-flower- 
ing and  larger  leaves  with  coarser  teeth  and  less  pointed 
apex. 

Fitis  Longii,  Prince.  Differs  from  vigorous  forms  of  V.  vulpina 
in  having  floccose  or  pubescent  young  growth:  leaves  deci- 
dedly more  circular  in  outline,  with  more  angular  teeth  and 
duller  in  color,  often  distinctly  pubescent  beneath:  stamens 
in  fertile  flowers  short  and  weak  and  laterally  reflexed,  those 
in  sterile  flowers  long  and  strong:  seeds  larger.— N.  W.  Texas 
and  New  Mexico.  Regarded  by  French  authors  as  a  hybrid, 
the  species  V.  rupestris,  vulpina,  candicans,  and  cordifolia 
having  been  suggested  as  its  probable  parents.  It  is  vari- 
able in  character.  In  most  of  its  forms  it  would  be  taken 
for  a  compound  of  V.  rupestris  and  V.  vulpina,  but  the  latter 
species  is  not  known  to  occur  in  most  of  its  range.  It  was 
very  likely  originally  a  hybrid  between  V.  rupestris  (which 
it  sometimes  closely  resembles  in  herbarium  specimens  except 
for  its  woolliness),  and  some  tomentose  species  (possibly  with 
V.  Arizonica  or  V.  Doaniana),  but  it  is  now  so  widely  dis- 
tributed, and  grows  so  far  removed  from  its  supposed  pa- 
rents, and  occurs  in  such  great  quantity  in  certain  areas, 
that  for  taxonomic  purposes  it  must  be  kept  distinct.  It  is 
not  unlikely  that  it  has  originated  at  different  places  as  the 
product  of  unlike  hybridizations.  Late  French  writers  desig- 
nate the  jagged-leaved  forms  as  V.  Solonis,  and  the  dentate 
forms  as  V.  Nuevo-Mexicana.  This  interesting  grape  was 
found  some  thirty  years  ago  by  Engelmann  in  the  Botanic 
arden  of  Berlin,  nnder  the  name  of  Vitis  Solonis,  without 
history.  Engelmann  guesses  (Bushberg  Cat.  ed.  3,  18)  the 


NATIVE     GRAPES  105 

name  to  be  a  corruption  of  "Long's."  It  is  probable  that 
the  plant  was  sent  to  European  gardens  as  J"it'is  Longii — very 
likely  from  Prince's  nursery— and  the  name  was  misread  on 
the  label.  The  original  name,  which  was  duly  published  by 
Prince,  with  description,  may  now  be  restored.  Fitis  Longii 
is  no  doubt  capable  of  yielding  useful  varieties  for  the 
Plains. 

far.  microsperma,  Bailey,  is  a  very  vigorous  and  small- 
seeded  form,  which  is  very  resistant,  to  drought. — Red  River, 
N.  Texas. 

Fit  is  Cliampini,  Planch.  Probably  a  hybrid  of  V.  rupestris  or 
F.  Berlandieri  and  V.  candicans,  bearing  medium  to  large  reni- 
form  or  reniform- cordate  leaves  which  are  variously  pubes- 
cent or  cobwebby  but  become  glabrous,  the  growing  tips 
mostly  white -tomentose:  berries  very  large  and  excellent. — 
S.  W.  Texas.  In  some  places  associated  with  F.  candicans, 
F.  Berlandieri,  and  F.  monticola  only,  and  in  others  with  the 
above  and  F.  rupestris.  Often  found  composing  dense  thick- 
ets. Very  promising  as  a  parent  of  horticultural  varieties. 
(Fig.  18.) 

DD.  Diaphragms  very  thick  and  strong:  young  shoots  bright 
red:  leaves  often  strongly  lobed. 

1'itis  palmata,  Vahl.  (Red  or  Cat  Grape.)  A  slender  but  strong- 
growing  vine,  with  small,  long-jointed,  angled,  red,  glabrous, 
herb-like  shoots  and  red  petioles:  leaves  small  to  medium, 
ovate -acuminate,  dark  green  and  glossy,  sometimes  indis- 
tinctly pubescent  on  the  nerves  below,  the  sinus  obtuse,  the 
blade  either  nearly  continuous  in  outline  or  (commonly) 
prominently  lobed  or  even  parted,  coarsely  notched:  stamens 
in  the  sterile  flowers  long  and  erect:  clusters  loose  and  long- 
peduncled,  branched;  the  flowers  opening  late:  berries  small 
and  late  (%-  to  %-inch  in  diameter),  black,  with  or  without 
purple  bloom,  with  little  juice,  and  commonly  containing  but 
a  single  seed,  which  is  large  and  broad.— A  handsome  plant; 
Illinois  and  Missouri  to  Louisiana  and  Texas.  More  prom- 
ising as  an  ornamental  plant  than  as  a  vineyard  plant.  The 
flesh  is  usually  thin  and  the  skin  thick  and  tough,  but  the 
flavor  is  often  vinous  and  good. 


106         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

BB  Cordifolia-like  grapes,  with  thickish  and  dull-colored  or 
grayish  green  leaves  often  holding  some  close  dull  pubes- 
cence below  at  maturity  (and  the  shoots  and  leaves  nearly 


Fig.  18.    Barnes  grape.     Yitis  Champini.    (Adapted  from  Munson.) 

always  more  or  less  pubescent  when  young),  the  teeth  mostly 
short  or  at  least  not  deep-cut,  the  point  mostly  triangular 
and  conspicuous. 

c.  Plant  strong  and  climbing,  with  stout  persistent  tendrils. 
D.  Young   shoots   terete,   and   glabrous  or  very  soon   becoming 

so. 
Pitts   cordifolia,   Michx.     (True    Frost   Grape,  Chicken,  Raccoon, 


THE    CORDIFOLIA    GRAPES  107 

or  Winter  Grape.)  One  of  the  most  vigorous  of  American 
vines,  climbing  to  the  tops  of  the  tallest  trees,  and  some- 
times making  a  trunk  1  or  2  feet  in  diameter:  internodes 
long;  the  diaphragms  thick  and  strong:  petioles  long;  leaves 
long-cordate,  triangular-cordate  with  a  rounded  base,  or 
cordate  ovate,  undivided  but  sometimes  very  indistinctly 
3-lobed  or  3 -angled,  the  basal  sinus  rather  deep  and  narrow 
and  normally  acute,  the  margin  with  large  angular  acute 
teeth  of  different  sizes,  and  the  point  long  and  acute,  the 
upper  surface  glossy  and  the  lower  bright  green  and  either 
becoming  perfectly  glabrous  or  bearing  some  close  and  fine 
inconspicuous  grayish  pubescence  on  the  veins:  stamens 
erect  in  the  sterile  flowers  and  short  reflexed- curved  in  the 
fertile  ones:  clusters  long  and  very  many -flowered,  most  of 
the  pedicels  branched  or  at  least  bearing  a  cluster  of  flow- 
ers: berries  numerous  and  small  (about  %-inch  in  diameter), 
in  a  loose  bunch,  black  and  only  very  slightly  glaucous,  late 
and  persistent,  with  a  thick  skin  and  little  pulp,  becoming 
edible  after  frost  ;  seeds  medium  and  broad.  —  In  thickets 
und  along  streams  from  Pennsylvania  (and  probably  S.  New 
York)  to  E.  Kansas  and  southwards  to  Florida  and  Texas. 
It  gives  little  promise  to  the  experimenter. 

Far.  fcetida,  Engelm. ,  has  fetidly  aromatic  berries,  and  grows 
in  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

Far.  semper  virens,  Munson.  A  glossy-leaved  form,  holding  its 
foliage  very  late  in  the  season :  leaves  sometimes  suggesting 
forms  of  F.  palmata. — S.  Florida. 

Far.  Helleri,  Bailey.  Leaves  more  circular  (i.  e.,  lacking  the 
long  point),  and  the  teeth  round-obtuse  and  ending  in  a 
short  mucro.— Kerr  county,  S.  Texas,  1,600  to  2,000  feet. 

DD.  Young  shoots  angled,  and  covered  the  first  year  with  to- 
mentum  or  wool. 

Vitis  Baileyana,  Munson.  ('Possum  Grape.)  Less  vigorous 
climber  than  V.  cordifolia,  rather  slender,  with  short  inter- 
nodes  and  very  many  short  side  shoots:  petioles  shorter  and 
often  pubescent;  leaves  frequently  smaller,  the  larger  ones 
shortly  but  distinctly  3-lobed  (lobes  mostly  pointed  and 
much  spreading),  bright  green  but  not  shining  above  and 


108         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

gray  below  and  pubescent  at  maturity  only  on  the  veins, 
the  point  only  rarely  prolonged  and  often  muticous,  the  teeth 
comparatively  small  and  notch-like  and  not  prominently 
acute,  sinus  more  open:  floral  organs  very  small;  the  sta- 
mens reflexed  in  the  fertile  flowers;  pedicels  short,  making 
the  bunch  very  compact:  berries  about  the  size  of  V.  cordi- 
folla,  black  and  nearly  or  quite  bloomless,  late;  seed  small 
and  notched  on  top.— Mountain  valleys,  800  to  3,000  feet 
altitude,  S.  W.  Virginia  and  adjacent  West  Virginia  and 
W.  North  Carolina,  Tennessee  and  N.  Georgia;  also  at  com- 
mon levels  in  the  uplands  of  West -central  Georgia.  The 
eastern  counterpart  of  V.  Berlandieri.  Not  promising  for 
the  cultivator. 

Vitis  Berlandieri,  Planch.  'Mountain,  Spanish,  Fall,  or  Winter 
Grape.)  A  stocky,  moderately  climbing  vine,  with  mostly 
short  internodes  and  rather  thick  diaphragms:  leaves  me- 
dium-large, broadly  cordate-ovate  or  cordate-orbicular  (fre- 
quently as  broad  as  long),  glabrous  and  glossy  above, 
covered  at  first  with  gray  pubescence  below  but  becoming 
glabrous  and  even  glossy  except  on  the  veins,  the  sinus 
mostly  inverted -U-shaped  in  outline  but  often  acute  at  the 
point  of  insertion  of  the  petiole,  the  margin  distinctly  angled 
above  or  shortly  3-lobed  and  marked  by  rather  large  open 
notch- like  acute  teeth  of  varying  size,  the  apex  mostly  pro- 
nounced and  triangular- pointed:  stamens  long  and  ascending 
in  the  sterile  flowers,  laterally  recurved  in  the  fertile  ones: 
clusters  compact  and  compound,  mostly  strongly  shouldered, 
bearing  numerous  medium  to  small  (%-inch  or  less  in  diam- 
eter) purple  and  slightly  glaucous  very  late  berries,  which 
are  juicy  and  pleasant-tasted  ;  seed  (frequently  only  one) 
medium  to  small.— Limestone  soils  along  streams  and  hills, 
S.  W.  Texas  and  adjacent  Mexico.  Well  marked  by  the 
gray-veined  under  surface  of  the  leaves.  No  varieties  in 
cultivation,  and  gives  little  promise  in  that  direction,  al- 
though it  crosses  with  one  or  two  other  species;  but  valu- 
able as  phylloxera-proof  stock  on  limy  soils. 

Vitis  cinerea,  Engelm.  (Sweet  Winter  Grape.)  Climbing  high, 
with  medium  to  long  internodes  and  thick  and  strong  dia- 
phragms; leaves  large,  broadly  cordate-ovate  to  triangular- 


THE    CINEREA    GRAPES  109 

cordate -ovate  (generally  longer  than  broad),  the  sinus  mostly 
wide  and  obtuse,  the  margin  small -notched  (teeth  much 
smaller  than  in  V.  Berlandieri)  or  sometimes  almost  entire, 
mostly  distinctly  and  divaricately  3 -angled  or  shortly  3-lobed 
towards  the  apex,  the  triangular  apex  large  and  prominent, 
the  upper  surface  cobwebby  when  young  but  becoming  dull 
dark  green  (not  glossy),  the  under  surface  remaing  ash-gray 
or  dun-gray  webby-pubescent  :  stamens  in  sterile  flowers 
long,  slender  and  ascending,  in  the  fertile  ones  short,  and 
laterally  recurved:  cluster  mostly  loose  and  often  straggling, 
containing  many  small  black  berries,  these  only  slightly  if 
at  all  glaucous,  ripening  very  late,  and  after  frost  becoming 
sweet  and  pleasant;  seeds  small  to  medium. — Along  streams, 
mostly  in  limy  soils,  central  Illinois  to  Kansas  and  Texas 
and  Mexico,  also  N.  Florida.  Readily  distinguished  from 
V.  (esttialis  by  the  triangular-topped  sharply  3-lobed  ash- 
gray  leaves  and  the  gray  tomentum  of  the  young  growth.  No 
varieties  in  cultivation,  but  it  hybridizes  with  V.  rupestris 
and  V.  Linsecomii. 

Far.  Floridana,  Munson.  Growing  tips  rusty-tomentose,  as 
are  sometimes  the  veins  on  the  under  sides  of  the  leaves: 
cluster  longer- peduncled  and  more  compound. —  Manatee 
county,  Florida,  and  apparently  also  in  Arkansas  ;  not  un- 
likely a  compound  with  V.  cestivalis,  but  the  leaves  have  the 
characteristic  shape  of  V.  cinerea.  Not  to  be  confounded 
with  any  form  of  V.  Caribaa,  because  of  the  lobed  tri- 
angular-topped leaves  and  much  larger  teeth. 

Far.  canescens,  Bailey.  A  form  with  rounded  or  heart-like 
leaves,  the  upper  half  of  the  leaf  lacking  the  triangular  and 
3-lobed  shape  of  the  type. — St.  Louis,  Missouri,  and  S.  Illi- 
nois, to  Texas. 

cc.  Plant   scarcely    climbing,   the    tendrils    perishing    if    failing 

to  find  support. 

Vitis  Arizonica,  Engelm.  (Canon  Grape.)  Plant  weak,  much 
branched,  with  short  internodes  and  thick  diaphragms, 
branchlets  angled:  leaves  mostly  small,  cordate-ovate  and 
with  a  prominent  triangular-pointed  apex,  the  sinus  broad 
or  the  base  of  the  blade  even  truncate,  the  teeth  many  and 
small  and  pointed  or  mucronate,  the  margin  either  contin- 


110         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

uous  or  very  indistinctly  3-lobed  (or  sometimes  prominently 
lobed  on  youiig  growths^  the  leaves  and  shoots  white -woolly 
when  young,  but  becoming  nearly  glabrous  with  age  :  sta- 
mens ascending  in  sterile  flowers  and  recurved  in  the  fertile 
ones:  bunches  small  and  compound,  not  greatly,  if  at  all, 
exceeding  the  leaves,  bearing  20  to  40  small  black  berries 
of  pleasant  taste;  seeds  2  to  3,  medium  size.— Along  river 
banks,  W.  Texas  to  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  mostly  south 
of  the  35th  parallel,  to  S.  E.  California  and  N.  Mexico.  Not 
promising  horticulturally 

Far.  glabra,  Munson.  Plant  glabrous,  with  glossy  and  mostly 
thinner  and  larger  leaves. — In  mountain  gulches  and  canons, 
with  the  species  and  ranging  northwards  into  S.  Utah. 
Readily  distinguished  from  F.  monticola  by  its  triangular- 
pointed  and  small-toothed  leaves. 

BBB.  Orbicular- scallop -leaved  species  of  the  Pacific  Coast. 
Vitis  Californica,  Benth.  Vigorous  species,  tall-climbing  upon  trees 
(Fig.  19),  but  making  bushy  clumps  when  not  finding  support, 
the  nodes  large  and  diaphragms  rather  thin:  leaves  mostly 
round -reniform  (the  broader  ones  the  shape  of  a  horse's 
hoof -print),  rather  thin,  either  glabrous  and  glossy  or  (more 
commonly)  cottony -canescent  until  half  grown  and  usually 
remaining  plainly  pubescent  below,  the  sinus  ranging  from 
very  narrow  and  deep  to  broad  and  open,  the  margins  vary- 
ing (on  the  same  vine)  from  finely  blunt-toothed  to  coarsely 
scallop -toothed  (the  latter  a  characteristic  feature),  the  upper 
portion  of  the  blade  either  perfectly  continuous  and  rounded 
or  sometimes  indistinctly  3-lobed  and  terminating  in  a  very 
short  apex:  bunches  medium,  mostly  long-peduncled  and 
forked,  the  numerous  small  berries  glaucous -white,  seedy 
and  dry  but  of  fair  flavor;  seed  large  (%-  to  TVinch  long), 
prominently  pyriform.— Along  streams  in  central  and  N.  Cal- 
ifornia and  S.  Oregon.  Leaves  becoming  handsomely  colored 
aud  mottled  in  fall.  Of  small  promise  horticulturally. 

AA.  Colored -leaved  Grapes,  marked  by  thick  or  at  least  firm 
foliage,  the  leaves  prominently  rusty  or  white -tomentose  or 
glaucous-blue  below.  V.  cinerea,  V.  Arisomca,  and  possibly 
V.  Californica  may  be  sought  here;  and  late -gathered  forms 
of  F.  bicolor  may  be  looked  for  in  A. 


THE    CALIFORNICA    GRAPES 


111 


.  Leaves  only  flocculent  or  cobwebby  or  glaucous  below  when 
fully  grown  (i.  e.,  not  covered  with  a  thick,  dense,  felt-like 
tomentum,  except  sometimes  in  V.  Doaniana). 


Fig.  19.     Vitis  Californica  growing  on  a  stub  over  50  feet  high.    Yallo  Ballo 
Mountains,  Cal.    W.  L.  Jepson,  1897. 

c.  White-tipped  grapes,  comprising  species  with  the  ends  of 
the  growing  shoots  and  the  under  surfaces  of  the  leaves 
whitish  or  gray. 

Vitis  Girdiana,  Munson.  (Valley  Grape.)  Strong  climbing  vine, 
with  thick  diaphragms  :  leaves  medium  to  large  and  rather 
thin,  broadly  cordate -ovate,  with  a  rather  deep  and  narrow 
sinus  and  nearly  continuous  or  obscurely  3-lobed  outline 
(sometimes  markedly  3-lobed  on  young  shoots),  the  teeth 
many  and  small  and  acute,  the  apex  short-triangular  or 
almost  none,  the  under  surface  remaining  closely  ashy- 
tomeutose  :  clusters  large  and  very  compound,  each  one 
dividing  into  three  or  four  nearly  equal  sections,  which  are 
in  turn  shouldered  and  thyrse-like:  berries  small,  black,  and 


112         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

slightly  glaucous,  the  skin  thin  but  tough,  pulp  finally  be- 
coming sweet;  seeds  medium  in  size,  pyriform.— S.  Cali- 
fornia, south  of  the  36th  parallel.  Differs  from  V.  Calif  or  - 
nica  in  the  more  pubescent  shoots  and  foliage,  smaller  and 
sharp  teeth,  decompound  clusters,  smaller  less  glaucous 
berries,  and  smaller  seeds.  Shoots  of  V.  California  often 
bear  leaves  with  small  and  muticous  teeth,  and  such  speci- 
mens without  the  flower-clusters  are  difficult  to  distinguish 
from  this  species.  Some  of  the  forms  which  have  been 
referred  to  V.  Girdiana  are  evidently  hybrids  with  the  wine- 
grape,  V.  vinifera;  and  at  best  the  plant  is  imperfectly 
understood  and  its  merits  as  a  species  are  yet  to  be  deter- 
mined. 

fit  is  Doaniana,  Munson.  Plant  vigorous,  climbing  high  or  re- 
maining bushy  if  failing  to  find  support,  with  short  inter- 
nodes  and  rather  thin  diaphragms  :  leaves  bluish  green  in 
cast,  mostly  large,  thick  and  firm,  cordate-ovate  or  round- 
ovate  in  outline,  bearing  a  prominent  triangular  apex,  the 
sinus  either  deep  or  shallow,  the  margins  with  very  large 
angular  notch-like  teeth  and  more  or  less  prominent  lobes, 
the  under  surface  usually  remaining  densely  pubescent  and 
the  upper  surface  more  or  less  floccose:  cluster  medium  to 
small,  bearing  large  (%-inch  and  less  in  diameter),  black, 
glaucous  berries  of  excellent  quality  ;  seeds  large  (%-  to 
%-inch  long),  distinctly  pyriform. — Chiefly  in  N.  W.  Texas, 
but  ranging  from  Greer  county,  Oklahoma,  to  beyond  the 
Pecos  River  in  New  Mexico.  The  species  varies  greatly  in 
pubescence,  some  specimens  being  very  nearly  glabrous  at 
maturity  and  others  densely  white -tomentose.  The  plant 
would  pass  at  once  as  a  hybrid  of  V.  vulpina  and  V.  candi- 
cans,  except  that  the  former  does  not  often  occur  in  its 
range.  It  is  very  likely  a  hybrid,  however,  and  V.  candicans 
seems  to  be  one  of  the  parents.  Promising  as  a  parent  of 
varieties  for  the  dry  regions. 

cc.  Rusty-tipped  grapes,  comprising  the  sestivalian  group,  the 
unfolding  leaves  and  (except  in  V.  bicolor}  the  young  shoots 
distinctly  ferrugineous,  and  the  mature  leaves  either  rusty 
or  bluish  below,  or  sometimes  becoming  green  in  V.  bicolor. 

Vitis    (esttvalis,    Michx.     (Summer,    Bunch,    or    Pigeon     Grape.) 


THE    ^STIVALIS    GRAPES  113 

Strong,  tall -climbing  vine,  with  medium -short  internodes, 
thick  diaphragms,  and  often  pubescent  petioles :  leaves  mostly 
large,  thinnish  at  first  but  becoming  rather  thick,  ovate- 
cordate  to  round-cordate  in  outline,  the  sinus  either  deep 
(the  basal  lobes  often  overlapping)  or  broad  and  open,  the 
limb  always  lobed  or  prominently  angled,  the  lobes  either 
3  or  5,  in  the  latter  case  the  lobal  sinuses  usually  enlarged 
and  rounded  at  the  extremity,  the  apex  of  the  leaf  broadly 
and  often  obtusely  triangular,  the  upper  surface  dull  and 
becoming  glabrous  and  the  under  surface  retaining  a  cover- 
ing of  copious  rusty  or  red -brown  pubescence  which  clings 
to  the  veins  and  draws  together  in  many  small  tufty  masses: 
stamens  in  fertile  flowers  reflexed  and  laterally  bent:  clus- 
ters mostly  long  and  long-peduncled,  not  greatly  branched 
or  even  nearly  simple  (mostly  interrupted  when  in  flower), 
bearing  small  (%-inch  or  less  in  diameter),  black,  glaucous 
berries,  which  have  a  tough  skin,  and  a  pulp  ranging  from 
dryish  and  astringent  to  juicy  and  sweet;  seeds  medium  size 
(%-inch  or  less  long),  two  to  four. — Chemung  county,  New 
York,  and  Long  Island  to  central  Florida,  and  westward 
through  S.  Pennsylvania  to  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri.  A 
marked  type  among  American  grapes,  being  readily  dis- 
tinguished from  other  species  by  the  reddish  fuzz  of  the 
under  sides  of  the  leaves.  Most  of  the  tomentose-leaved 
species  have  been  at  one  time  or  another  confounded  with 
it,  but  when  allowed  to  stand  by  itself,  it  is  not  a  difficult 
species  to  understand.  Vitis  cestivalis  has  given  rise  to  more 
cultivated  varieties  than  any  other  species  except  V.  La- 
brusca  (see  page  81).  Michaux's  original  specimens  are  well 
preserved  in  Paris,  and  they  have  been  properly  understood 
by  American  botanists.  (See  Fig.  16,  page  82.) 

Far.  glauca,  Bailey.  Leaves  (and  mature  wood)  glaucous-blue 
on  the  body  beneath,  but  the  veins  rusty :  berries  and  seeds 
larger.  S.  W.  Missouri  to  N.  Texas.  Much  like  V.  bicolor, 
but  leaves  thicker  and  more  pubescent  below,  and  tips  of 
shoots  rusty-tomentose. 

Far.  Linsecomii,  Munson.  (Post-oak,  Pine-wood,  or  Turkey 
Grape.)  More  stocky  than  V.  cestivalis,  climbing  high  upon 
trees  but  forming  a  bushy  clump  when  not  finding  support: 


114         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

leaves  densely  tomentose  or  velvety  below:  berries  large 
(X-  to  %-inch  in  diameter),  black  and  glaucous,  mostly 
palatable  ;  seeds  mostly  much  larger  than  in  V.  cestivalis 
(often  %-inch  long).— High  post-oak  (Quercus  stellata)  lands, 
S.  W.  Missouri  to  N.  Texas  and  E.  Louisiana.  Very  likely 
derived  from  the  sestivalis  type  through  adaptation  to  dry 
soils  and  climates.  Perhaps  worth  recognition  as  a  geo- 
graphical species.  Of  great  promise  to  the  cultivator. 
Far.  Bourquiniana,  Bailey.  A  domestic  offshoot,  represented 
in  such  cultivated  varieties  as  Herbemont  and  Le  Noir,  dif- 
fering from  V.  cestivalis  in  its  mostly  thinner  leaves,  which 
(like  the  young  shoots)  are  only  slightly  red-brown  below, 
the  pubescence  mostly  cinereous  or  dun-colored  or  the  under 
surface  sometimes  blue-green:  berries  large  and  juicy,  black 
or  amber- colored. —  A  mixed  type,  some  of  it  probably  a 
direct  amelioration  of  V.  cestivalis,  and  some  hybridized  with 
the  wine-grape  ( V.  vinifera).  Much  cultivated  South,  and 
the  parent  of  many  excellent  varieties  (see  page  81),  which 
Munson  (Texas  Farm  and  Ranch,  Feb.  8,  1896)  arranges  in 
two  sections,  —  the  Herbemonts  and  the  Devereuxs. 

Vitis  tricolor,  LeConte.  (Blue  Grape,  or  Summer  Grape  of  the 
North.)  A  strong,  high-climbing  vine,  with  mostly  long 
internodes  and  thick  diaphragms,  the  young  growth  and 
canes  generally  perfectly  glabrous  and  mostly  (but  not 
always)  glaucous-blue,  tendrils  and  petioles  very  long  : 
leaves  large,  round-cordate-ovate  in  outline,  glabrous  and 
dull  above  and  very  heavily  glaucous -blue  below,  but  losing 
the  bloom  and  becoming  dull  green  very  late  in  the  season, 
those  on  the  young  growth  deeply  3-5-lobed,  and  on  the 
older  growths  shallowly  3-lobed,  the  basal  sinus  running 
from  deep  to  shallow,  the  margins  mostly  shallow-toothed 
or  sinuate -toothed  (at  least  not  so  prominently  notch-toothed 
as  in  V.  cestivalis):  cluster  mostly  long  and  nearly  simple 
(sometimes  forked),  generally  with  a  long  or  prominent 
peduncle:  the  purple  and  densely  glaucous  berries  of  me- 
dium size  (%-inch  or  less  in  diameter),  sour  but  pleasant- 
tasted  when  ripe  (just  before  frost);  seeds  rather  small.— 
Abundant  northwards  along  streams  and  on  banks,  there 
taking  the  place  of  V.  cestivalis.  Ranges  from  New  York 


NATIVE    GRAPES  115 

and  Illinois  to  the  mountains  of  W.  North  Carolina,  and  to 
W.  Tennessee.  Well  distinguished  from  V.  cestivalis  (at  least 
in  its  northern  forms)  by  the  absence  of  rufous  tomentum, 
the  blue-glaucous  small -toothed  leaves,  and  long  petioles 
and  tendrils.  It  has  been  misunderstood  because  it  loses  its 
glaucous  character  in  the  fall.  Of  small  promise  horticul- 
turally. 

Vitis  Caribcea,  DC.  Climbing,  with  flocculent- woolly  (or  rarely 
almost  glabrous)  and  striate  shoots;  tendrils  rarely  contin- 
uous: leaves  cordate-ovate  or  even  broader,  and  mostly 
acuminate-pointed,  sometimes  obscurely  angled  above  (but 
never  lobed  except  now  and  then  on  young  shoots),  becom- 
ing glabrous'above  but  generally  remaining  rufous-tomentose 
below,  the  margins  set  with  very  small  mucro-tipped  sinuate 
teeth:  cluster  long  and  long-peduncled,  generally  large  and 
very  compound  :  berry  small  and  globose,  purple  ;  seed 
obovate,  grooved  on  the  dorsal  side. — A  widely  distributed 
and  variable  species  in  the  American  tropics,  running  into 
white-leaved  forms  (as  in  F.  Slancoi,  Munson).  Little 
known  in  the  United  States:  Louisiana,  Lake  City,  N.  Flor- 
ida; swamp,  near  Jacksonville,  Florida. 
BB.  Leaves  densely  tomentose  or  felt-like  beneath  throughout 

the  season,  the  covering  white  or  rusty  white. 
c.  Tendrils  intermittent   (every  third  joint  with  neither  tendril 
nor  inflorescence  opposite). 

Vitis  cnndicans,  Engelm.  (Mustang  Grape.)  Plant  strong  and 
high  climbing,  with  densely  woolly  young  growth  (which  is 
generally  rusty  tipped),  and  very  thick  diaphragms:  leaves 
medium  in  size,  and  more  or  less  poplar- like,  ranging  from 
reniform-ovate  to  cordate-ovate  or  triangular-ovate,  dull 
above  but  \ery  densely  white-tomentose  below  and  on  the 
petioles,  the  basal  sinus  very  broad  and  open  or  usually 
none  whatever  (the  base  of  the  leaf  then  nearly  truncate), 
deeply  5-7-lobed  (with  enlarging  rounded  sinuses)  on  the 
strong  shoots  and  more  or  less  indistinctly  lobed  or  only 
angled  on  the  normal  growths,  the  margins  wavy  or  sinuate- 
toothed:  stamens  in  the  sterile  flowers  long  and  strong, 
those  in  the  fertile  flowers  very  short  and  laterally  reflexed: 
clustar  small,  mostly  branched,  bearing  a  dozen  to  twenty 


116         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

large  (%-inch  or  less  in  diameter)  purple  or  light-colored 
or  even  whitish  berries,  which  have  a  thick  skin  and  a  very 
disagreeable,  fiery  flavor;  seeds  large,  pyriform. — E.  Texas, 
mostly  on  limestone  soils.  Not  promising  to  the  experi- 
menter. 

Far.  coriacea,  Bailey.  (Leather-leaf  or  Calloosa  Grape.)  Dif- 
fers from  the  species  chiefly  in  bearing  much  smaller  (about 
%-inch  in  diameter),  thinner- skinned,  and  more  edible 
grapes,  with  mostly  smaller  seeds,  and  perhaps  a  less  ten- 
dency to  very  deep  lobing  in  the  leaves  on  young  shoots, 
and  possibly  rather  more  marked  rustiness  on  the  young 
growths.— Florida,  chiefly  southward,  in  which  range  various 
Texan  plants  reappear.  The  more  agreeable  quality  of  the 
fruit  is  probably  the  result  of  a  more  equable  and  moister 
climate.  More  promising  than  the  species. 

Fitis  Simpsoni,  Munson.  Distinguished  by  mostly  much-cut 
leaves  on  the  young  shoots,  and  comparatively  thin,  large, 
and  large-toothed  ones  on  the  main  shoots,  rusty  white 
tomentum  below  and  very  prominently  brown-tomentose 
young  growths,— the  character  of  the  leaves  and  tomentum 
varying  widely,  the  foliage  sometimes  becoming  almost  blue- 
green  below.— Central  Florida:  Lake  county;  Manatee  Eiver, 
etc.  This  is  likely  a  hybrid  of  V.  cestivalis  and  V.  candicans, 
var.  coriacea.  Some  forms  of  it  are  very  like  V.  Labrusca, 
and  might  be  mistaken  for  that  species. 

cc.  Tendrils  mostly  continuous  (a  tendril  or  inflorescence  op- 
posite every  node). 

Vitis  Labrusca,  L.  (Fox  Grape,  Skunk  Grape.)  Fig.  11,  page  58. 
A  strong  vine,  climbing  high  on  thickets  and  trees;  young 
shoots  tawny  with  much  scurfy  down :  leaves  large  and  thick, 
strongly  veined  (especially  beneath),  broadly  cordate -ovate, 
mostly  obscurely  3-lobed  towards  the  top  (on  strong  growths 
the  sinuses  sometimes  extending  a  third  or  even  half  the 
depth  of  the  blade,  and  rounded  and  edentate  at  the  bottom) 
or  sometimes  nearly  continuous  in  outline  and  almost  del- 
toid-ovate, the  petiolar  sinus  mostly  shallow  and  very  open 
(ranging  to  narrow  and  half  or  more  the  length  of  the 
petiole),  the  margins  shallowly  scallop -toothed  with  mucro- 
pointed  teeth  (or  sometimes  almost  entire),  and  the  apex 


VITIS    LABRUSCA  117 

and  lobes  acute,  the  upper  surface  dull  green  and  becoming 
glabrous,  but  the  lower  surface  densely  covered  with  a 
tawny  white,  dun-colored  or  red-brown  tomentum:  stamens 
long  and  erect  in  the  sterile  flowers  and  (in  wild  forms) 
short  and  recurved  in  the  fertile  ones:  raceme  short  (berries 
usually  less  than  20  in  wild  types),  generally  simple  or  very 
nearly  so,  about  the  length  of  the  peduncle  when  in  flower : 
berries  large  and  nearly  spherical,  ranging  from  purple  - 
black  (the  common  color)  to  red-brown  and  amber-green, 
generally  falling  from  the  pedicel  when  ripe,  variable  in 
taste  but  mostly  sweetish  musky  and  sometimes  slightly 
astringent,  the  skin  thick  and  tough;  seeds  very  large  and 
thick. — New  England  and  southwards  in  the  Alleghany  re- 
gion and  highlands  to  West -central  Georgia.  Not  known  to 
occur  west  of  E.  New  York  in  the  North,  except  at  the 
southern  end  of  Lake  Michigan  (E.  J.  Hill),  and  in  S.  Indi- 
ana, by  Munson.  The  parent  of  the  greater  part  of 
American  cultivated  grapes.  It  is  often  confounded  with 
V.  (esticalis  in  the  South,  from  which  it  is  distinguished  by 
the  habitually  continuous  tendrils,  the  more  felt -like  leaves 
which  are  not  floccose,  and  especially  by  the  small -toothed 
leaves,  very  short  clusters  and  large  berries  and  seeds.  Vitis 
Labrusca  is  the  parent  stem  of  the  greater  part  of  American 
grapes.  It  is  well  represented  in  Catawba,  Concord  and 
Worden.  In  its  wild  state  it  is  very  variable  in  size,  color 
and  quality  of  fruit,  and  in  size  of  cluster.  Its  berries  tend 
to  fall  from  the  stem,  and  the  "shelling''  of  grapes  in  vine- 
yards may  be  a  lingering  of  this  ancestral  trait.  See  Mun- 
son, in  Amer.  Gard.,  xii.  580. 


American    Grape    Literature 

The  best  illustration  of  the  high  part  which  the 
grape  has  played  in  the  industrial  development  of  the 
country,  is  afforded  by  a  survey  of  the  voluminous 
literature  of  the  subject.  Probably  no  less  than  a 
hundred  books,  counting  the  various  editions,  have 
been  published  in  this  country  on  the  grape.  The 


118         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

following  catalogue  of  the  volumes  of  this  American 
literature  which  are  in  the  author's  library  at  the 
moment  this  volume  goes  to  press  (excluding  works 
devoted  exclusively  to  wines),  will  give  the  reader  a 
good  idea  of  this  species  of  writing  : 

ADLUM,  JOHN.  A  Memoir  on  the  Cultivation  of  the  Vine  in 
America,  and  the  Best  Mode  of  Making  Wine.  Washing- 
ton :  Davis  &  Force.  Copyr.  1823.  1823.*  Pp.  142. 

The    same.       2d    ed.      Washington  :      William     Greer. 

Copyr.  1828.     1828.     Pp.  180. 

ALLEN,  J.  FISK.  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Culture  and  Treat- 
ment of  the  Grape  Vine  :  Embracing  its  history,  with  direc- 
tions for  its  treatment,  in  the  United  States  of  America,  in 
the  open  air,  and  under  glass  structures,  with  and  without 
artificial  heat.  2d  ed.,  enlarged.  Boston  :  Dutton  &  Went- 
worth.  Copyr.  1848.  1848.  Illustr.  Pp.  247. 
— .  The  same.  3rd  ed.,  enlarged  and  revised.  New  York: 
C.  M.  Saxton,  Barker  &  Co.  Copyr.  1853.  1860.  Illustr. 
Pp.  330. 

ANDRAE,  E.  K.  A  Guide  to  the  Cultivation  of  the  Grape  Vine 
in  Texas,  and  Instructions  for  Wine -Making.  Dallas,  Texas: 
Texas  Farm  and  Ranch  Pub.  Co.  Copyr.  1890.  1890.  Illur.tr. 
Paper.  Pp.  45. 

BAILF.Y,  L.  H.  American  Grape  Training.  An  account  of  the 
leading  forms  now  in  use  of  training  the  American  Grapes. 
New  York  :  Rural  Publishing  Co.  Copyr.  1893.  1893.  Illustr. 
Pp.  95.  (Republished  and  extended  in  "The  Pruning-Book.") 

BRIGHT,  WILLIAM.  Bright's  Single  Stem,  Dwarf  and  Renewal 
System  of  Grape  Culture,  adapted  to  the  vineyard,  the  grapery, 
and  the  fruiting  of  vines  in  pots,  on  trellises,  arbors,  etc.  New 
York:  C.  M.  Saxton,  Barker  &  Co.  Copyr.  1860.  1860. 
Pp.  123. 

— .     The  same.     2d  ed.     New  York:     C.   M.  Saxton,  Barker 
&  Co.     Copyr.  1860.     1861.     Pp.  155. 

*Date  of  imprint. 


AMERICAN    GRAPE    LITERATURE  119 

BUCHANAN,  ROBERT.  The  Culture  of  the  Grape,  and  Wine  Mak- 
ing ;  With  an  Appendix  Containing  Directions  for  the  Culti- 
vation of  the  Strawberry,  by  N.  Longworth.  3rd  ed.  Cin- 
cinnati :  Moore  &  Anderson.  Copyr.  1852.  1852.  Illustr. 
Pp.  142. 

-  .     The    same.     4th    ed.     Cincinnati  :     Moore,   Anderson    & 
Co.     Copyr.  1852.     1853.     Illustr.     Pp.  142. 

—  .     Tl.e  same.     5th  ed.     Cincinnati  :     More,  Wilstach,  Keys 
&  Co.     Copyr.  1852.     1855.     Illustr.     Pp.  142. 

-  .     The  same.     6th  ed.     Cincinnati  :     More,  Wilstach,  Keys 
&  Co.     Copyr.  1852.     1860.     Illustr.     Pp.  142. 

-  .     The  same.     7th  ed.     Cincinnati  :    Moore,  Wilstach,  Keys 


Co.     Copyr.  1852.     1861.     Illustr.     Pp.  142. 

The    same.     8th    ed.     Philadelphia  :     Crawford 


Illustr.     Pp.  142.     No  date. 

BUSBY,  JAMES.  Grapes  and  Wine.  A  visit  to  the  Principal  Vine- 
yards of  Spain  and  France  ;  giving  a  minute  account  of  the 
different  methods  pursued  in  the  cultivation  of  the  vine  and  the 
manufacture  of  wine  ;  with  a  catalogue  of  the  different  varieties 
of  grape  ;  an  attempt  to  calculate  the  profits  of  cultivating  the 
vine  ;  an  estimate  of  the  profits  of  Malaga  fruit,  &c.,  &c.  New 
York:  C.  S.  Francis  &  Co.;  Boston  :  J.  H.  Francis.  1848. 
Pp.  106. 

BUSH  &  SON  &  MEISSNER.  Illustrated  Descriptive  Catalogue  of 
American  Grape  Vines.  A  Grape  Growers'  Manual.  3rd  ed. 
St.  Louis:  E.  P.  Studley  &  Co.  Copyr.  1883.  1883.  Illustr. 
Pp.  153. 

— .     The  same.     4th  ed.      St.   Louis:    K.   P.   Studley  &  Co. 
Copyr.  1894.     1895.     Illustr.     Pp.  208. 

CHORLTON,  WILLIAM.  The  American  Grape  Grower's  Guide.  In- 
tended especially  for  the  American  climate.  Being  a  practical 
treatise  on  the  cultivation  of  the  grape  vine  in  each  department 
of  hothouse,  cold  grapery,  retarding  house,  and  outdoor  cul- 
ture. With  plans  for  the  construction  of  the  requisite  build- 
ings, and  giving  the  best  methods  of  heating  the  same.  New 
York:  C.  M.  Saxton  &  Co.  Copyr.  1852.  1856.  Illustr. 
Pp.  171. 


120         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

.     The  same.     New  edition.     With  descriptions  of  the  later 

exotic  grapes,  by  Dr.  George  Thurber.  New  York:  Orange 
Judd  Co.  Copyr.  1883.  1883.  Illustr.  Pp.  208. 

.     The- same.     New  edition.     With  descriptions  of  the  later 

exotic  grapes,  and  a  select  list  of  the  native  varieties,  by  Dr. 
George  Thurber.  New  York:  Orange  Judd  Co.  Copyr.  1887. 
1890.  Illustr.  Pp.  211. 

The  Cold  Grapery,  from  Direct  American  Practice :  being 


a  concise  and  detailed  treatise  on  the  cultivation  of  the  exotic 
grape  vine,  under  glass,  without  artificial  heat.  New  York  : 
J.  C.  Riker.  Copyr.  1853.  1853.  Illustr.  Pp.  95. 

COPE,  F.  J.     (See  Saunders,  Wm.) 

CUTTER,  ELIZABETH  H.     (See  Muench,  Frederick.) 

DE  BERNEAUD,  THIEBAUT.  The  Vine  Dresser's  Theoretical  and 
Practical  Manual,  or  the  Art  of  Cultivating  the  Vine  ;  and 
Making  Wine,  Brandy,  and  Vinegar.  With  descriptions  of  the 
species  and  varieties  of  the  vine  ;  the  climates,  soils,  and  sites 
in  which  each  can  be  successfully  cultivated,  with  their  times 
of  blossoming  and  bearing  ;  the  diseases  of  the  vine  and  means 
of  prevention.  With  instructions  for  the  preservation  of  wines, 
brandies,  vinegars,  confections,  &c.,  of  the  grape  ;  for  the  care 
of  the  wine-cellar,  the  economy  of  the  vineyard  ;  and  a  brief 
sketch  of  the  diseases  incidental  to  the  vine  dresser.  Fro-n 
the  2nd  French  edition,  by  the  translator  of  Le  Solitaire,  Le 
Notti  Romane,  &c.  New  York:  P.  Canfield.  1829.  Illustr. 
Pp.  158. 

DENNISTON,  G.  Grape  culture  in  Steuben  county,  N.  Y.  Albany : 
C.  Wendell.  1865.  Maps.  Pp.  22.  Reprint  from  Trans.  N. 
Y.  State  Agric.  Soc.  xxiv. 

Du  BREUIL  [A.].  The  Thomery  System  of  Grape  Culture.  From 
the  French.  New  York:  Excelsior  Publishing  House.  No 
date.  Illustr.  Pp.  60. 

Du  BREUIL,  A.     iSee  Warder,  John  A.) 

DUFOUR,  JOHN  JAMES.  The  American  Vine  Dresser's  Guide,  be- 
ing a  Treatise  on  the  Cultivation  of  the  Vine,  and  the  Process 
of  Wine  Making,  adapted  to  the  Soil  and  Climate  of  the  United 
States.  Cincinnati  :  S.  J.  Browne.  Copyr.  1826.  1826. 
Illustr.  Pp.  317. 


AMERICAN    GRAPE    LITERATURE  121 

EISEN,  GUSTAV.  The  Raisin  Industry.  A  Practical  Treatise  on 
the  Raisin  Grapes,  their  History,  Culture  and  Curing.  San 
Francisco  :  H.  S.  Crocker  &  Co.  Copyr.  1890.  1890.  Illustr. 
Pp.  223. 

FISHER,  S.  I.  Observations  on  the  Character  and  Culture  of  the 
European  Vine,  during  a  Residence  of  Five  Years  in  the  Vine- 
growing  Districts  of  France,  Italy  and  Switzerland.  To  which 
is  added  The  Manual  of  the  Swiss  Vigneron,  as  adopted  and 
recommended  by  the  Agricultural  Societies  of  Geneva  and 
Berne,  by  Mons.  Brun  Chappius,  and  The  Art  of  Wine  Making, 
by  Mons.  Bulos.  Philadelphia  :  Key  &  Biddle.  Copyr.  1834. 
1834.  Pp.  244. 

FLAGG,  WILLIAM  J.  Three  Seasons  in  European  Vineyards: 
Treating  of  vine-culture  ;  vine  disease  and  its  'cure  ;  wine- 
making  and  wines,  red  and  white  ;  wine  drinking,  as  affecting 
health  and  morals.  New  York  :  Harper  &  Brothers.  Copyr. 
1869.  1869.  Illustr.  Pp.  332. 

FULLER,  ANDREW  S.  The  Grape  Culturist  :  A  Treatise  on  the 
Cultivation  of  the  Native  Grape.  New  York  :  Davies  &  Kent. 
Copyr.  1864.  1864  Illustr.  Pp.  262. 

— .     The    same.      New    and    enlarged    edition.      New  York  : 
Orange  Judd  &  Co.     Copyr.     1867.     Illustr.     Pp.  286. 

.     The    same.     New,   revised    and    enlarged    edition.     New 


York  :     Orange  Judd  Co.     Copyr.  1894.     Illustr.     Pp.  282. 

GOESSMANN,  C.  A.  Contribution  to  the  Chemistry  of  the  Ameri- 
can Grape  Vine.  Paper.  Pp.  16.  Reprint  from  Proc.  Amer. 
Chemical  Soc.  ii.  No.  1. 

GRANT,  C.  W.  Manual  of  the  Vine,  including  Illustrated  Cata- 
logue of  Vines  (8th  ed.);  and,  Grape  Vines:  Description  of 
Stock  of  Vines  for  sale  at  lona  Island  (3rd  ed.).  lona  :  C.  W. 
Grant.  Copyr.  1864.  Illustr.  Paper.  Pp.  101. 

HARASZTHY,  A.  Grape  Culture,  Wines  and  Wine-Making.  With 
notes  upon  Agriculture  and  Horticulture.  New  York  :  Harper 
&  Brothers.  Copyr.  1862.  1862.  Illustr.  Pp.  420. 

HASKELL,  GEORGE.  An  Account  of  Various  Experiments  for  the 
Production  of  New  and  Desirable  Grapes,  and  an  Account  of 
Forty  Varieties  obtained  by  Hybridization.  Ipswich, 
1877.  Paper.  Pp.  18. 


122  THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 


.     A   Narrative  of   the  Life,  Experience,  and  Work  of  an 

American  Citizen.  [Autobiography.  Contains  an  account  of 
the  author's  work  with  American  Grapes].  Ipswich,  Mass.: 
1896.  Pp.  156. 

HOARE,  CLEMENT.  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Cultivation  of  the 
Grape  Vine  on  Open  Walls.  Second  American  edition.  Bos- 
ton :  William  D.  Ticknor.  Copyr.  1837.  1840.  Illustr.  Pp. 
144. 

— .  The  same  ;  to  which  is  added  a  descriptive  account  of  an 
improved  method  of  planting  and  managing  the  roots  of  grape 
vines.  Third  American  edition.  Boston  :  William  D.  Ticknor 
&  Co.  Copyr.  1837.  1845.  Illustr.  Pp.  192. 

.     The  same.     Fourth  American  edition.    Boston  :     William 

D.  Tickner  &  Co.     Copyr.  1837.     1848.     Illus.     Pp.  180. 

.     A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Cultivation  of  the  Grape  Vine 

on  Open  Walls,  with  a  descriptive  account  of  an  improved 
method  of  planting  and  managing  the  roots  of  grape  vines.  To 
which  is  added  an  appendix  containing  remarks  on  the  culture 
of  the  grape  vine  in  the  United  States.  New  York  :  H.  Long 
&  Brother.  1847.  Illustr.  Pp.  209. 

HOFER,  A.  F.  Grape  Growing.  A  Simple  Treatise  on  the  Single 
Pole  System,  or  How  Grapes  are  Cultivated  in  the  Upper  Rhine 
Valley.  New  York:  E.  H.  Libby.  1878.  Illustr.  Paper. 
Pp.  32. 

HORTICOLA.     (See  Mohr,  Frederick.) 

HUSMANN,  GEORGE.  The  Cultivation  of  the  Native  Grape,  and 
Manufacture  of  American  Wines.  New  York:  Geo.  E.  Wood- 
ward. Copyr.  1866.  1870.  Illustr.  Pp.  192.  [The  back- 
stamp  is  "Grapes  and  Wine,"  and  the  book  is  often  quoted 
under  that  title.] 

— .  The  same.  Fourth  edition,  Revised  and  rewritten. 
With  several  added  Chapters  on  the  Grape  Industries  of  Cali- 
fornia. New  York  :  Orange  Judd  Co.  Copyr.  1895.  1896. 
Illustr.  Pp.  269. 

.  American  Grape  Growing  and  Wine  Making.  With  con- 
tributions from  well-known  Grape  Growers,  giving  a  .Wide 
Range  of  Experience.  New  York:  Orange  Judd  Co.  Copyr. 
1880.  1880.  Illustr.  Pp.  243. 


AMERICAN     GRAPE     LITERATURE  123 

LONGWORTH,  N.  The  Cultivation  of  the  Grape,  and  Manufacture 
of  Wine.  Also,  Character  and  Habits  of  the  Strawberry  Plant. 
Cincinnati  :  L'Hommedieu  &  Co.  1846.  Illustr.  Paper. 
Pp.  19. 

LOUBAT,  ALPHONSE.  The  American  Vine  Dresser's  Guide.  New 
York:  G.  &  C.  Carwill.  Copyr.  1827.  1827.  Pp.138.  [Pages 
alternately  English  and  French.] 

.  The  same.  New  and  revised  edition.  New  York  :  D. 

Appleton  &  Co.  Copyr.  1872.  1872.  Portrait.  Pp.  123. 
[Pages  alternately  English  and  French.] 

McMiNN,  J.  M.     (See  Saunders,  Wm.) 

McMuRTRiE,  WM.  Report  upon  Statistics  of  Grape  Culture  and 
Wine  Production  in  the  United  States  for  1880.  Washington  : 
Government  Printing  Office.  1881.  Paper.  Pp.104.  Special 
Rep.  No.  36,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agric. 

MEAD,  PETER  B.  An  Elementary  Treatise  on  American  Grape 
Culture  and  Wine  Making.  New  York  :  Harper  &  Brothers. 
Copyr.  1867.  1867.  Illustr.  Pp.  483. 

MITZKY  &  Co.,  C.  Our  Native  Grape.  Grapes  and  Their  Culture  ; 
also  Descriptive  List  of  Old  and  New  Varieties.  Rochester  : 
W  W.  Morrison.  Copyr.  1893.  1893.  Illustr.  Pp.  218. 

MOHR,  FREDERICK.  The  Grape  Vine.  A  Practically  Scientific 
Treatise  on  its  Management.  Explained  from  his  own  ex- 
perience and  researches,  in  a  thorough  and  intelligible  manner, 
for  vineyardists  and  amateurs  in  garden  and  .vine  culture. 
Translated  from  the  German,  and  accompanied  with  hints  on 
the  propagation  and  general  treatment  of  American  varieties. 
By  Horticola  [Charles  Siedhof].  New  York  :  Orange  Judd  & 
Co.  Copyr.  1867.  1868.  Illustr.  Pp.  129. 

MUENCH,  FREDERICK.  School  for  American  Grape  Culture  :  Brief 
but  thorough  and  practical  guide  to  the  laying  out  of  vineyards, 
the  treatment  of  vines,  and  the  production  of  wine  in  North 
America.  Translated  from  the  German  by  Elizabeth  H.  Cutter. 
St.  Louis :  Conrad  Witter.  Copyr.  1865.  1865.  Pp.  139. 

MUNSON,  T.  V.  Classification  and  Generic  Synopsis  of  the  Wild 
Grapes  of  North  America.  Washington  :  Government  Print- 
ing Office.  1890.  Paper.  Pp.  14.  Bulletin  No.  3,  Division 
of  Pomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agric. 


124        THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

MY  VINEYARD  AT  LAKEVIEW,  by  a  western   Grape  Grower  [A.  N. 
Prentiss].     New  York :      Orange  Judd  &   Co.      Copyr.  1866. 
Illustr.     Pp.  143. 
'    PARKER,  E.  AND  C.     (See  Warder,  John  A.) 

PERSOZ.  New  Process  for  the  Culture  of  the  Vine.  Translated  by 
J.  O'C.  Barclay,  Surgeon  U.  S.  N.  New  York  :  C.  M.  Saxton 
&  Co.  Copyr.  1856.  1857.  Illustr.  Paper.  Pp.  58.  Also  in 
Saxton's  (or  Moore's)  Rural'Hand-Books,  Fourth  Series  (with- 
out the  plates). 

PHELPS,  R.  H.  The  Vine  :  Its  Culture  in  the  United  States. 
Wine  Making  from  Grapes  and  other  Fruit  ;  Useful  Recipes, 
&c.  Hartford  :  Case,  Tiffany  &  Co.  Copyr.  1855.  1855. 
Illustr.  Paper.  Pp.  83. 

,PHIN,  JOHN.  Open  Air  Grape  Culture  :  A  Practical  Treatise  on 
the  Garden  and  Vineyard  Culture  of  the  Vine,  and  the  Manu- 
facture of  Domestic  Wine.  Designed  for  the  use  of  amateurs 
and  others  in  the  Northern  and  Middle  States.  Profusely  illus- 
trated with  new  engravings  from  carefully  executed  designs, 
verified  by  direct  practice.  To  which  is  added  a  selection  of 
examples  of  American  vineyard  practice,  and  a  carefully  pre- 
pared description  of  the  celebrated  Thomery  System  of  Grape 
Culture.  New  York  :  C.  M.  Saxton.  Copyr.  1862.  1863. 
Pp.  375.  [The  back -stamp  of  the  book  is  "Grape  Culture  and 
Wine  Making."] 

— .  Open  Air  Grape  Culture  :  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the 
Garden  and  Vineyard  Culture  of  the  Vine.  New  York  :  Geo. 
E.  Woodward  &  Co.;  Orange  Judd  Co.  Copyr.  1876.  1876. 
Illustr.  Pp.  266. 

PRINCE,  WILLIAM  ROBERT,  AIDED  BY  WILLIAM  PRINCE.  A  Treatise 
on  the  Vine  ;  Embracing  its  history  from  the  earliest  ages  to 
the  present  day,  with  descriptions  of  above  two  hundred  foreign 
and  eighty  American  varieties  ;  together  with  a  complete  dis- 
sertation on  the  establishment,  culture,  and  management  of 
vineyards.  New  York  :  T.  &  J.  Swords,  G.  &  C.  &  H.  Car- 
vill,  E.  Bliss,  Collins  &  Co.,  G.  Thorburn  &  Sons  ;  Philadel- 
phia :  Judah  Dobson  ;  Boston  :  J.  B.  Russell  ;  Baltimore  : 
Gideon  B.  Smith  ;  Richmond  :  James  Winston  ;  Charleston, 
8.  C.:  Joseph  Simmons.  Copyr.  1830.  1830.  Illustr. 
Pp.  355. 


AMERICAN    GRAPE     LITERATURE  125 

EAFINESQUE,  C.  S.  American  Manual  of  the  Grape  Vine  and  the 
Art  of  Making  Wine  :  Including  an  account  of  62  species  of 
vines,  with  nearly  300  varieties.  An  account  of  the  principal 
wines,  American  and  foreign.  Properties  and  uses  of  wines 
and  grapes.  Cultivation  of  vines  in  America  ;  and  the  art  to 
make  good  wines.  Philadelphia.  1830.  Illustr.  Paper.  Pp.  64. 

REEMELIN,  CHARLES.  The  Vine  Dresser's  Manual,  an  Illustrated 
Treatise  on  Vineyards  and  Wine  Making.  New  York  :  C.  M. 
Saxton  &  Co.  Copyr.  1855.  1855.  Illustr.  Pp.  103.  Also  in 
Saxton's  Rural  Hand-Books,  Third  Series,  New  York,  1856. 

.     The  Wine- Maker's  Manual.     Cincinnati  :     Robert  Clarke 

&  Co.     Copyr.  1868.     1868.     Illustr.     Pp.  123. 

SAUNDERS,  WILLIAM.  Both  Sides  of  the  Grape  Question.  "Com- 
prising An  Essay  on  the  Culture  of  the  Native  and  Exotic 
Grape,  by  William  Saunders  ;  Physiography  in  its  Application 
to  Grape  Culture,  by  F.  J.  Cope  ;  and  A  Contribution  to  the 
Classification  of  the  Species  and  Varieties  of  the  Grape  Vine, 
with  Hints  on  Culture,  by  J.  M.  McMinn.  Philadelphia  :  J. 
B.  Lippincott  &  Co.  and  A.  M.  Spangler.  New  York  :  C.  M. 
Saxton,  Barker  &  Co.  Copyr.  1860.  1860.  Illustr.  Paper. 
Pp.  96. 

SIEDHOF,  CHARLES.     (See  Mohr,  Frederick.) 

SPOONER,  ALDEN.  The  Cultivation  of  American  Grape  Vines,  and 
Making  of  Wine.  Brooklyn  :  A.  Spooner  &  Co.  Copyr.  1846. 
1846.  Illustr.  Pp.  96. 

STRONG,  W.  C.  Culture  of  the  Grape.  Boston  :  J.  E.  Tilton  & 
Co.  Copyr.  1866.  1867.  Illustr.  Pp.  355. 

TOMES,  ROBERT.  The  Champagne  Country.  New  York  :  George 
Routledge  &  Sons.  Copyr.  1867.  1867.  Pp.  231. 

TRYON,  J.  H.  A  Practical  Treatise  on  Grape  Culture,  with  In- 
structions How  to  Prune  and  Train  the  Vine  on  the  Horizontal  - 
Arm  System.  Willoughby,  Ohio.  1887.  Illustr.  Paper. 
Pp.  22. 

— .     The    same.       2nd    edition.       Willoughby,    Ohio.       1893. 
Illustr.     Paper.     Pp.    27. 

WAIT,  FRONA  EUNICE.  Wines  and  Vines  of  California.  A  Trea- 
tise on  the  Ethics  of  Wine  Drinking.  San  Francisco  :  The 
Bancroft  Co.  Copyr.  1889.  1889.  Illustr.  Paper.  Pp.  215. 


126        THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

WARDER,  JOHN  A.  Vineyard  Culture  Improved  and  Cheapened.  By 
A.  Du  Breuil.  Translated  byE.  and  C.  Parker,  of  Longworth's 
Wine  House.  With  Notes  and  Adaptations  to  American  Cul- 
ture by  John  A.  Warder.  Cincinnati  :  Robert  Clarke  &  Co. 
Copyr.  1867.  1867.  Illustr.  Pp.  337. 

WOODWARD,  GEO.  E.  &  F.  W.  Woodward's  Graperies  and  Horti- 
cultural Buildings.  New  York  :  Geo  E.  Woodward  &  Co. ; 
Orange  Judd  Co.  Copyr.  1865.  Illustr.  Pp.  139. 


II 

THE   STRANGE    HISTORY   OF   THE 
MULBERRIES 

WHEN  the  history  of  American  agriculture  shall  be 
written,  the  record  of  the  many  attempts  to  raise 
silk -worms  and  to  establish  a  great  silk -growing 
industry  will  form  an  important  and  suggestive 
chapter.  Sketches  of  these  attempts  have  been  made 
from  time  to  time,  but  there  still  lacks  any  full 
collation  of  the  subject  with  collateral  events.  The 
literature  of  American  silk-growing  from  the  manu- 
facturer's side,  however,  is  as  extensive  and  satis- 
factory as  that  of  any  other  agricultural -manufacturing 
industry.  It  is  not  my  purpose  to  explore  these 
interesting  fields,  but  rather  to  present  a  rapid  view 
of  the  rise  and  extent  of  mulberry -planting,  more 
especially  in  the  earlier  days,  and  then  to  make 
observations  on  the  subsequent  evolution  of  the  mul- 
berry fruits, — a  subject  which,  strangely  enough, 
has  escaped  the  attention  both  of  botanists  and  of 
writers. 

Summary    Sketch   of  the   Early   Silk   Industry 

We    have    seen    (page   10),    when    reviewing    the 

early   attempts    at    grape    culture,    that  "silke   worme 

seed"  was   sent   to  Virginia    in    1621   by  the  London 

Company,    along  with    grape   vines.     If    we  were    to 

(127) 


128         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

trace  the  history  of  the  attempts  to  raise  silk  in  the 
New  World,  we  should  find  that  it  is  intimately  asso- 
ciated with  the  efforts  to  grow  the  European  types  of 
grapes  and  to  make  wine.  But  the  experiments  in 
silk  culture  were  even  more  persistent,  and  they  were 
frequently  the  subjects  of  legislative  encouragement 
and  regulation.  The  very  early  efforts  in  Virginia 
were  largely  instigated  by  James  I.,  whose  insistence 
upon  the  feasibility  of  raising  silk  in  England  is  as 
well  known  as  his  strenuous  efforts  to  discourage  the 
cultivation  of  tobacco  in  Virginia.  The  earliest  writ- 
ing directed  to  any  special  crop  in  the  New  World 
was  devoted  to  the  raising  of  silk,  and  independent 
books  and  monographs  have  continued  to  appear  until 
our  own  time.  Justin  Winsor's  "Narrative  and  Criti- 
cal History"  records  that  "The  King  addressed  a  letter 
to  the  Earl  of  Southampton  with  a  review  of  Bonceil's 
treatise  on  the  making  of  silk,  and  this  was  pub- 
lished by  the  Company  in  1622.  *  *  * 
The  Company  also  published,  in  1629,  Observations 
*  of  Fit  Rooms  to  keepe  silk  wormes  in." 
In  1650,  Edward  Williams,  under  the  signature  of 
"E.  W.  Gent.,"  wrote  an  essay  on  Virginia,  in  which 
is  an  account  of  "The  Discovery  of  Silk -worms,  with 
their  benefit.  And  Implanting  of  Mulberry  Trees. 
Also  the  Dressing  of  Vines,  for  the  rich  Trade  of 
making  Wines  in  Virginia."  After  painting  a  vivid 
picture  of  the  profit  of  silk -growing  in  China,  Persia 
and  other  countries,  he  rises  to  Virginia  and  its  mar- 
vellous great  wild  silk- worms,  "a  Countrey  which  Nature 
hath  no  lesse  particularly  assigned  for  the  production, 
food  and  perfection  of  this  Creature  then  Persia  or 
China,  stored  naturally  with  infinities  of  Mulberry- 


EUTOPIAN    VIRGINIA  129 

trees,  some  so  large  that  the  leaves  thereof  have  by 
Frenchmen  beene  esteemed  worth  51.  in  which  the 
indigenall  and  naturall  Worme  hath  beene  found  as 
bigge  as  Wallnuts."  Williams  recalls  that  Virginia 
"is  parallell  with  China,  and  the  happiest  Countries 
of  the  East  and  Westerne  World  in  scituation,"  and 
it  is  "comparable  to  Persia."  It  is  little  wonder, 
then,  that  he  should  foresee  that  the  colony  was 
destined  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  silk -producing 
countries  of  the  world,  particularly  as  the  experiment 
had  not  yet  been  fully  tried. 

But  Williams  was  not  alone  in  these  fertile  prophe- 
cies of  Virginia.  The  writings  of  most  of  his  contem- 
poraries, touching  the  climate  and  natural  resources  of 
this  new  land,  can  be  compared  to  nothing  else  than 
the  burning  pictures  which  have  been  painted  of  our 
Pacific  coast  within  our  own  time.  Nothing  was  im- 
possible in  Virginia  and  the  adjoining  lands  to  the 
southward.  Here,  in  Virginia,  the  sugar-cane,  cotton, 
indigo,  ginger,  rice  and  pepper,  may  grow  alongside 
"all  the  Spiceryes  of  the  Phillippines";  corn  (grain) 
will  yield  two  or  three  harvests  in  the  season  ;  there 
are  riches  in  copper  and  iron  ore,  "with  great  proba- 
bility of  a  Golden  Mine" ;  the  native  fruits  "  are  various 
and  delicate";  the  fishes  "for  number  and  tast  com- 
parable to  any  other" ;  the  beasts  are  many,  of  excel- 
lent flesh,  "the  Hides  of  divers  usefull,  and  the  Furres 
extraordinary  rich";  in  short,  as  Williams  thinks  of  it, 
"Virginia  duly  considered  for  exactnesse  of  temperature, 
goodnesse  of  soyle,  variety  of  Staples,  and  capability  of 
receiving  what  ever  is  produced  in  any  other  part  of 
the  World,  gives  the  right  hand  of  preheminence  to  no 
Province  under  Heaven."- 


130         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

In  this  abounding  new  country,  all  the  rural 
scheme's  which  had  proved  to  be  visionary  in  England 
could  be  expected  to  thrive.  One  of  the  most  inflated 
of  all  these  instructions  for  the  betterment  of  the 
colony  was  a  treatise  by  Samuel  Hartlib,  published  in 
1655,  called  "The  Reformed  Virginian  Silk  Worm." 
The  most  remarkable  part  of  this  book  is  a  letter 
"wherein  the  Experiment  of  a  vertuous  Lady  of  this 
Nation  for  the  breeding  of  Silk-worms,  is  addressed 
unto  the  Planters  of  Virginia."*  This  lady  sets  herself 
before  the  reader  in  a  most  ambitious  introduction  : 
"Hearken  wel  you  beloved  Planters,  to  what  in  these 
few  lines  I  shall  declare  unto  you ;  and  is  thus  sent 
you  in  Print,  that  all  of  you  may  communicate  the 
great  and  superlative  good  and  benefit  will  be  unto 
every  one  of  you :  who  so  is  wise,  will  ponder  these 
things,  and  give  praise  and  glory  to  God,  the  Author 
of  all  good  Inventions,  how  Providence  having  brought 
this  to  pass  for  all  your  exceeding  great  happiness  and 
increase  of  store  of  wealth,  with  so  much  ease,  so  little 
labour,  no  cost  unto  you  ;  and  in  so  short  a  time  as 
fourty  daies,  this  wealth  flowes  in  upon  you.  *  *  * 
She  hath  I  say  this  Spring  found  out  (by  the  speciall 
blessing  of  God  upon  her  intentions)  so  rare,  so  speedy, 
and  so  costless  a  way  and  means  for  the  feeding  of 
Silkwormes  ;  by  the  triall  and  experiment  she  so  luckily 
made,  to  the  admiration  of  all  that  have  seen  or  heard 
of  it,  as  a  thing  scarce  credible  ;  because  not  heretofore 
thought  of,  nay,  as  it  were,  held  impossible  by  such 

*Hartlib  was  a  prominent  man  of  his  time,  and  made  what  is  probably  the 
first  definite  plan  for  a  school  of  agriculture.  See  a  brief  sketch  of  the  man 
and  a  summary  of  his  "Essay  for  the  Advancement  of  Husbandry-Learning," 
1651,  in  Garden  and  Forest,  vol.  x.,  p.  168. 


A  WOMAN'S   APPEAL  131 

Authours  as  have  written  of  the  ordering  and  feeding 
of  Silkworms:  that  this  her  invention  being  thus  made 
known  unto  you,  her  beloved  friends  in  Virginia,  she 
is  most  confident,  and  assures  herself  you  will  all  there 
instantly,  without  further  delay  (which  will  be  the  joy 
of  her  heart)  become  great  and  rich  Masters  of  this 
noble  Silk -work  to  all  your  unspeakable  wealth." 
With  dramatic  art,  she  delays  the  unfolding  of  her 
wonderful  secret  until  the  torrent  of  appetizing  sen- 
tences has  roused  the  curiosity  to  the  highest  pitch. 
Now  she  is  ready,  and  the  reader  is  eager  :  "  In  the 
beginning  of  May  last  1652,  when  her  young  Mulberry- 
tree  in  her  Garden  began  to  put  out  its  buds,  then  her 
Silkworm -eggs  began  to  hatch,  as  the  nature  of  this 
wise  creature  is,  when  her  food  begins  once  to  appear, 
she  conies  forth  of  her  shell :  she  presently  laying  a 
Mulberry- leaf e  upon  these  little  crawling  creatures,  they 
came  all  upon  it  instantly  ;  then  she  carried  the  leaf 
and  them  upon  it  to  the  tree,  upon  whose  leaves  they 
made  hast  to  be  ;  and  there  they  day  and  night  fed 
themselves,  creeping  from  leafe  to  leafe,  and  branch  to 
branch  at  their  own  liberties  most  pleasing  to  them- 
selves ;  they  grew  and  thrived  wonderfully,  and  sur- 
passed in  largness  of  body  those  other  wormes  she  kept 
in  her  chamber  (she  having  been  many  a  year  a  Mistris 
of  Silkworms,  and  kept  them  by  the  Book-rules)  this 
good  and  prosperous  beginning  heightened  her  hopes. 
The  wormes,  as  their  nature  is,  cast  off  or  slipped  out 
of  their  skins  four  severall  times,  still  growing  greater 
and  greater  to  the  singular  "  delight  and  contents  of 
their  Mistris.  About  45  dayes  thus  feeding  upon  the 
leaves,  they  began  that  rare  and  glorious  work  of  spin- 
ning their  Silk-bottomes  upon  the  leaves  and  branches 


132         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS      4 

of  the  tree ;  such  a  gallant  sight  to  behold,  it  ravished 
the  Spectators,  and  their  Mistris  joy  was  crowned  with 
excess  of  happiness  herein  and  hereby,  apparently  find- 
ing the  incomparable  felicity  this  would  prove  to  her 
dearly  beloved  Virginia,  (for  so  you  must  give  her 
leave  to  call  it,)  for  she  concluded,  and  so  must  all  you, 
that  this  being  thus  effected  in  England,  how  much 
more  with  assured  confidence  will  the  wormes  live,  feed, 
and  spin  in  Virginia  ?  she  upon  serious  and  due  con- 
sideration of  this  thing,  gave  God  hearty  and  humble 
thanks."  All  of  which  means  that,  although  it  was 
customary  then,  as  now,  to  feed  worms  on  picked 
leaves,  the  worms  will  nevertheless  live  and  thrive, 
under  congenial  conditions,  upon  the  tree  itself  ! 

A  book  of  such  prophetic  tendencies  must,  of 
course,  end  in  poetry.  The  first  georgic,  written  by 
John  Ferrar,  is  dedicated  to  "the  most  Noble,  Virginian 
natural  Silk -Worm  her  wonderful,  various,  plentiful 
food ;  The  infinite,  speedy,  great  wealth  she  will  pro- 
duce to  her  protectors  ;  (in  45.  days  the  time  of  her 
feeding)  with  small  labour,  cost,  or  skill,  (learnt  in  an 
houres  space  by  any  child.)  The  singular  aptness  of 
that  rare  Superlative  Climate,  in  Breeding  them  on  so 
many  several  kinds  of  Trees  in  her  Woods  where  they 
live,  Feed  and  Spin,  their  mighty  large,  strange, 
double -bottoms  [cocoons]  of  Silk :  To  the  admiration 
of  this  our  Old  World  ;  but  to  the  exaltation  and  glory 
of  incomparable  Virginia,  in  the  New." 

******* 

"Many  a  man  the  causes  faine  would  heare, 
How  these  rare  Worms  came  first  or  still  come  there. 
Insects  produced  are  by  heat  and  moisture 
Who  in  strange  shapes  and  formes  do  oft  appeare. 


SILK  -WORM    POETRY  133 

In  Spring  our  trees  the  Caterpillei*s  reare  ; 
Their  trees  likewise  these  noble  creatures  beare. 
And  some  proceed  from  eggs  that  scaped  are 
From  their  enemies  sight,  which  thing  is  rare. 
They  feed  not  only  on  the  Mulberry 
Which  in  our  World  sole  food  is  held  to  be 
For  all  such  precious  Worms  of  that  degree: 
But  Poplar,  Plum,  Crab,  Oake,  and  Apple  tree, 
Yea  Cherry,  and  tree  called  Pohickery: 
So  on  the  Shrubs  and  Bushes  feed  full  many 
Her  Worms  are  huge  whose  bottoms  dare 
With  Lemmons  of  the  largest  size  compare." 


The  grand  conclusion  of  the  book  disports  in  human 
worms  : 

"HOMO  VERMIS 

Wee  all  are  creeping  Worms  of  th'  earth, 
Some  are  Silk  -Worms  great  by  birth, 
Glow-  Worms  some  that  shine  by  night, 
Slow-Worms  others,  apt  to  bite, 
Some  are  Muck-Worms,  slaves  to  wealth, 
Maw-Worms  some  that  wrong  the  health, 
Some  to  the  publique  no  good  willers, 
Cancker-Worms  and  Cater-  pillers; 
Found  about  the  earth  wee'r  crawling, 
For  a  sorry  life  wee'r  sprawling, 
Putrid  stuff  we  suck,  it  fills  us, 
Death  then  sets  his  foot  and  kills  us." 

The  details  of  the  early  silk  experiments  are  so 
many  that  we  cannot  follow  them  further  with  profit, 
but  some  of  the  leading  events  must  be  noted. 
James  I.  attempted  to  compel  the  London  Company 
to  grow  silk  in  Virginia.  The  Company  imposed  "a 
fine  of  ten  pounds  of  tobacco  upon  every  planter  who 
did  not  cultivate  at  least  ton  mulberry  trees  for  every 


134        THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

100  acres  of  his  estate,"  writes  Brockett  iii  his  "Silk 
Industry  in  America."  "This  was  in  1623,  and  for 
some  time  the  business  went  on  well."  Under  Sir 
William  Berkeley's  governorship  (beginning  in  1641), 
"a  Reward  of  fifty  Pounds  of  Tobacco  was  given  for 
each  Pound  of  Silk,"  according  to  Robert  Beverley; 
and  "all  Persons  were  enjoin'd  to  plant  Mulberry- 
Trees,  for  the  food  of  the  Silk -worm,  according  to 
the  Number  of  Acres  of  Land  they  held."  The 
industry  thrived  for  .a  time,  and  a  little  silk  is 
said  to  have  been  exported  to  England  about  the 
middle  of  that  century.  Some  or  all  of  the  bounties 
were  removed,  at  least  for  a  time,  in  1666,  because 
the  industry  was  considered  to  be  well  established; 
but  tobacco  was  so  much  more  profitable  that  it  soon 
eclipsed  every  other  crop.  Robert  Beverley,  writing 
upon  "The  Present  State  of  Virginia"  in  1720,  recalls 
"how  formerly  there  was  Incouragement  given  for 
making  of  Linen,  Silk,  etc.,  and  how  all  Persons  not 
performing  several  things  towards  producing  of  them 
were  put  under  a  Fine:  But  now  all  Incouragemeut 
of  such  things  is  taken  away  or  intirely  dropt  by  the 
Assemblies,  and  such  Manufactures  are  always  neg- 
lected when  Tobacco  bears  anything  of  a  Price." 

The  efforts  to  grow  silk  in  the  New  World  did 
not  stop  with  Virginia.  With  the  founding  of  Caro- 
lina and  Georgia  the  attempt  was  made  with  all  the 
vigor  which  characterized  the  early  experiments  along 
the  James  River.  In  fact,  the  best  conceived  and 
most  persistent  scheme  for  silk -raising  appears  to  have 
been  that  which  was  set  on  foot  in  Georgia.  The 
designs  of  the  trustees  of  the  colony,  as  told 
by  Stevens  in  his  "History  of  Georgia,"  "comprised 


IN    GEORGIA  135 

three  points:  to  provide  an  asylum  for  the  poor  debtor 
and  persecuted  Protestant ;  to  erect  a  silk,  wine,  and 
drug -growing  colony ;  and  to  relieve  the  mother 
country  of  an  overburdened  population."  It  was 
estimated  that  the  silks  imported  into  England  from 
Italian,  French,  Chinese  and  other  sources,  amounted 
to  five  hundred  thousand  pounds  a  year  at  the  time 
of  the  colonization  of  Georgia,  about  1732  to  1735. 
"With  this  Georgia  will  abundantly  supply  us,"  the 
account  of  the  secretary  of  the  trustees  runs,  "if  we 
are  not  wanting  to  ourselves,  and  do  not  neglect  the 
opportunity  which  Providence  has  thrown  into  our 
hands.  The  saving  of  this  five  hundred  thousand 
pounds  per  annum  is  not  all;  but  our  supplying  our- 
selves with  raw  silk  from  Georgia  carries  this  further 
advantage  along  with  it,  that  it  will  provide  a  new  or 
additional  employment  for  at  least  twenty  thousand 
people  in  Georgia,  for  about  four  months  in  the  year, 
during  the  silk  season;  and  at  least  twenty  thousand 
more  of  our  poor  here,  all  the  year  round,  in  working 
the  raw  silk,  and  preparing  such  manufactures  as  we 
send  in  return;  or  to  purchase  the  said  raw  silk  in 
Georgia,  to  which  country  our  merchants  will  trade  to 
much  greater  advantage  than  they  can  expect  to  do  in 
Italy."  The  first  colonial  seal  represented  silk -worms 
upon  one  of  its  faces.* 

*Although  this  seal  is  described  in  various  histories,  I  have  been  unable  to 
find  a  print  of  the  side  bearing  the  silk-worms.  None  is  in  the  collection  of 
Colonel  Jones,  the  author  of  the  history,  nor  of  Otis  Ashmore,  an  authority 
on  the  seals  of  Georgia.  Mr.  Ashmore  published  a  history  of  all  the  seals  of 
Georgia  in  the  Morning  News  of  Savannah,  April  15,  1894.  See,  also,  Jones' 
History  of  Georgia,  p.  97.  It  is  probable  that  no  impression  of  this  aide  of 
the  seal  exists  in  this  country,  and  it  is  presumed  that  Colonel  Jones  obtained 
his  information  concerning  it  from  the  British  Colonial  Office.  Another  seal 
was  subsequently  made. 


136         THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

Sir  Thomas  Lombe,  an  eminent  silk  manufacturer  in 
England,  appears  to  have  been  the  leading  agitator  of 
the  silk  industry  for  Georgia.  Oglethorpe  was  thor- 
oughly convinced  of  the  practicability  of  the  industry. 
The  trustees  secured  Italian  silk -growers  to  accompany 
the  colonists.  Encouraging  results  were  soon  reached. 
Samples  of  raw  silk  began  to  be  received  in  England. 
"In  May,  1735,"  writes  Jones  in  his  "History  of 
Georgia,"  "the  trustees,  accompanied  by  Sir  Thomas 
Lombe,  exhibited  a  specimen  to  the  Queen,  who  desired 
that  it  should  be  wrought  into  a  fabric.  This  was 
done,  and  Her  Majesty  was  so  much  pleased  with  the 
manufactured  silk  that  she  ordered  it  to  be  made  up 
into  a  costume,  in  which  she  appeared  at  Court  on  her 
birthday."  In  or  about  1750,  Pickering  Robinson  was 
sent  from  England  to  France  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
specting the  growing  and  manufacture  of  silk,  and 
upon  his  return,  the  trustees  of  the  colony  despatched 
him  to  Georgia,  upon  a  salary  of  one  hundred  pounds 
a  year  and  an  allowance  of  twenty -five  pounds  for  a 
clerk,  to  assume  charge  of  the  silk  industry.  Oper- 
ations were  begun  at  Savannah  in  1751,  and  in  order 
to  encourage  the  growing  of  silk,  the  most  exorbi- 
tant bounties  were  offered  for  cocoons.  Despite  all 
the  forced  and  statutory  encouragement,  the  silk  in- 
dustry did  not  return  the  money  expended  upon  it, 
although  the  annual  production  of  the  raw  product 
reached  many  hundred  pounds  for  a  number  of  years. 
As  tobacco  had  gained  the  supremacy  in  Virginia,  so 
rice  and  cotton  soon  became  the  dominant  industries 
in  Georgia ;  the  troubles  with  the  mother  country 
depressed  the  markets  for  silk,  and  after  1766  silk- 
growing  rapidly  declined. 


THE    SALZBURGERS  137 

There  was  one  apparent  exception  to  this  decay  and 
unprofitableness  of  the  silk  industry,  and  this  was 
among  the  Salzburgers,  a  settlement  of  German  Prot- 
estants, who  came  to  Georgia  in  1734,  and  settled 
twenty -five  miles  above  Savannah,  at  Ebenezer. 
Under  the  care  of  their  pastor,  John  Martin  Bolzius, 
the  silk  culture  of  the  settlement  attained  to  much 
prominence.  "In  1736,"  writes  Rev.  P.  A.  Strobel, 
historian  of  the  Salzburgers,  "mulberry  trees  were 
planted  at  Ebenezer  under  the  direction  of  Mr. 
Bolzius,  and  the  Salzburgers  were  among  the  first 
and  most  successful  in  carrying  out  the  wishes  of 
the  trustees  in  this  particular.  In  1742,  five  hundred 
trees  were  sent  to  Ebenezer,  and  a  machine  was 
erected  for  preparing  the  silk.  In  1745  and  1746, 
specimens  were  sent  to  England,  and  in  1748,  four 
hundred  and  sixty -four  pounds  were  produced.  In 
1749,  the  trustees  authorized  Mr.  Bolzius  to  erect  ten 
sheds  and  ten  machines  for  reeling,  and  other  means 
necessary  to  carry  on  the  manufacture.  In  1750, 
nearly  all  the  colonists  had  abandoned  the  experiment 
of  silk -raising,  except  the  Salzburgers.  They  perse- 
vered, and  every  year  became  more  skilled  in  the 
business,  and  in  1751,  they  sent  over  to  England  a 
thousand  pounds  of  cocoons  and  seventy -four  pounds 
two  ounces  of  raw  silk,  yielding  the  handsome  sum 
one  hundred  and  ten  pounds  sterling,  or  upwards  of 
five  hundred  dollars,  the  price  being  at  that  time 
thirty  shillings  per  pound.  *  Many 

mulberry -trees  are  still  [1855]  standing  at  Ebenezer, 
which  no  doubt  have  sprung  from  the  original  stock  ; 
and  many  of  the  descendants  of  the  Salzburgers  con- 
tinue to  raise  silk,  which  they  manufacture  into  fish- 


138        THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

ing- lines,  and  sell  very  readily  in  Savannah."  These 
thrifty  Germans  continued  the  production  of  silk  until 
the  very  eve  of  the  Revolution.  As  late  as  1772,  they 
Nsent  to  England  four  hundred  and  eighty -five  pounds 
of  raw  silk,  and  it  is  recorded  that  "some  persons  in 
almost  every  family  there  understand  its  process  from 
the  beginning  to  the  end." 

But  the  doom  of  the  southern  silk  industry,  which 
had  been  portended  by  the  rise  of  cotton  and  rice 
and  other  interests,  as  well  as  by  restriction  of 
climate,  was  finally  set  by  the  American  Revolution. 
The  trustees  of  the  colony,  according  to  Charles  C. 
Jones,  Jr.,  had  "seriously  misinterpreted"  the  agricul- 
tural capabilities  of  Georgia.  "Although  substantial 
encouragement  had  been  afforded  to  Mr.  Amatis,  to 
Jacques  Camuse  [Italian  silk -growers],  to  the  Salz- 
burgers  at  Ebenezer,  and  to  others  ;  although  copper 
basins  and  reeling  machines  had  been  supplied  and  a 
filature  erected ;  although  silk -worm  eggs  were  pro- 
cured and  mulberry  trees  multiplied,— silk  culture  in 
Georgia  yielded  only  a  harvest  of  disappointment." 

The  center  of  activity  in  the  silk  industry  was  now 
transferred  to  the  northward.  About  1760,  silk  worm 
eggs  and  mulberry  trees  began  to  be  planted  in  Con- 
necticut, and  there  soon  arose  in  that  state  the  most 
important— because  the  most  nearly  self-sustaining- 
silk -growing  industry  which  has  yet  been  seen  in 
America.  The  industry  was  greatly  encouraged  by 
the  writings  of  Jared  Eliot,  an  able  preacher  and 
naturalist,  whose  memory  is  preserved  to  us,  amongst 
other  ways,  in  his  excellent  "Essays  upon  Field  Hus- 
bandry," which  appeared  at  sundry  times  from  1747 
to  1759.  He  lived  from  1685  to  1763.  He  was 


JARED    ELIOT  139 

grandson  of  the  apostle  Eliot.  In  1762  he  wrote 
"An  Essay  on  the  Invention  or  Art  of  Making 
very  good  Iron  from  black  Sea  Sand."  Drake,  in 
his  "Dictionary  of  American  Biography,"  says  that 
Eliot  "was  the  first  to  introduce  the  white  mulberry- 
tree  into  Connecticut,  and  with  it  the  silk -worm,  and 
published  a  treatise  upon  the  subject."  Such  a  treatise 
is  unknown  to  bibliographers,  so  far  as  I  can  learn. 
It  is  probably  the  sixth  and  last  essay  in  Eliot's  "Field 
Husbandry,"  published  in  1759.  I  am  the  fortunate 
possessor  of  this  rare  and  interesting  work,  but  noth- 
ing is  said  in  this  particular  essay  about  the  original 
introduction  of  the  mulberry  into  Connecticut.  In 
fact,  the  essay  speaks  of  the  tree  as  being  well  known, 
and  silk  had  been  made  in  the  colony.  Eliot  urges 
the  growing  of  silk  with  much  enthusiasm,  and  aside 
from  the  main  object,  he  sees  the  following  subsidiary 
advantages  of  planting  mulberry  trees  :  they  may  be 
planted  in  places  which  are  not  used  for  tilled  crops; 
they  produce  fire  wood,  "which  is  much  wanted  in 
our  old  towns  ; "  they  may  afford  timber ;  "  they  are 
worth  planting  for  Shade,  Ornament  and  Beauty;" 
may  be  used  for  hedges  ;  they  yield  fruit, — "the  white 
Mulberry  Tree  bears  abundance  more  Fruit,  than  the 
black ;  in  Italy,  where  they  abound  in  these  Trees, 
they  fatten  their  Swine  and  Poultry  with  the  Fruit; 
the  Writers  say,  that  the  Pork  raised  in  this  Manner, 
is  exceeding  good ;  what  is  made  by  this  Means  costs 
nothing,  for  the  Hogs  are  their  own  Carvers ;  the 
Flesh  raised  this  Way,  is  a  clear  Gain,  like  our  Wood 
fed  Pork.  I  apprehend  that  a  better  Improvement  of 
the  Fruit  would  be,  to  make  artificial  Wine ;  what  is 
now  made  in  the  Country  is  from  Cherries,  and  Cur- 


140         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

rants;  but,  as  the  Fruit  is  sour,  it  requires  a  great  deal 
of  Sugar  to  make  it  good,  which  is  an  heavy  Weight 
upon  that  Manufacture;  but  as  the  Juice  of  Mulberries 
is  very  sweet,  especially  the  white  Sort,  I  cannot  but 
think,  that  from  these,  very  good  artificial  Wine  may 
be  made,  without  any,  or  with  very  little  Sugar ;  what 
is  Sweet  has  a  spiritous  Strength,  in  Proportion  to 
the  Degree  of  Sweetness ;  Honey  will  make  strong 
Metheglin,  and  Molasses  makes  Rum."  The  mulberry 
may  be  made  to  afford  groves, — "proper  Places  for 
Retirement,  Study,  and  Meditation;  this  will  have 
Weight  with  those  who  love  Contemplation,  those 
who  are  wise  and  good ;  he  that  is  not  Company  for 
himself,  when  alone,  will  be  none  of  the  most  pleasing, 
or  edifying  Company  for  others." 

Eliot  says  that  "The  Society  established  at  London, 
for  the  encouragement  of  Arts,  Manufactures,  and 
Commerce,"  offered  premiums  for  the  production  of 
silk  in  North  America,  and  "pointed  out  Georgia, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Connecticut"  as  the  most  promising 
colonies  in  which  the  undertaking  might  be  prosecuted. 
The  Rev.  Samuel  Pullein's  "Culture  of  Silk"  for  the 
"Use  of  the  American  Colonies,"  published  in  Lon- 
don in  1758,  is  a  further  evidence  of  the  desire  of  the 
mother  country  to  foster  this  new  industry. 

Rev.  Dr.  Stiles,  subsequently  president  of  Yale 
College,  was  also  early  interested  in  promoting  the 
raising  of  silk,  and  he  aided  in  obtaining  from  the 
legislature  an  offer  of  a  bounty  of  ten  shillings  for 
every  hundred  mulberry  trees  of  three  years'  standing, 
and  another  of  three  pence  per  ounce  for  all  raw  silk 
produced  in  the  colony.  The  production  of  silk  was 
so  great  in  Connecticut  that  for  many  years  the  valua- 


SILK    FABRICS  141 

tion  of  it  was  from  $100,000  to  $200,000  per  annum. 
Its  production  persisted  throughout  the  Revolution, 
and  even  into  this  century.  The  chief  reason  of  the 
continuance  of  the  business  in  Connecticut  seems  to 
have  been  that  the  silk  was  used  almost  wholly  in 
domestic  manufacture,  and  therefore  did  not  need  the 
English  market  to  keep  it  alive.* 

In  most  or  all  of  the  eastern  states  silk  cul- 
ture has  been  undertaken,  particularly  in  the  colonial 
period.  Of  the  fabrics  made  of  this  silk,  Mr.  Brockett 
speaks  as  follows:  uWe  find  instances,  occasionally, 
*  of  some  delegate  to  the  Colonial 
Assembly  coming  thither  with  a  silk  waistcoat  or 
handkerchiefs  made  from  silk  of  his  own  raising, 
and  woven  in  his  own  house;  or  of  some  grand  lady 
appearing  at  a  reception  of  the  Colonial  Governor  or 
in  a  public  assembly,  clad  in  a  gown  woven  from 
native -grown  silk.  In  either  case,  the  fabrics  were 
greatly  praised;  yet  it  must  be  confessed  that,  as 
compared  with  the  silks  of  our  own  time,  they  were 
very  imperfect  goods,  and  would  be  scouted  by  our 
belles  and  beaux  as  unworthy  to  be  worn." 


The  "Multicaulis  Craze1' 

Although  the  interest  in  the  growing  of  silk  had 
greatly  subsided  before  the  close  of  the  last  century, 
it  had  not  completely  died  out.  Here  and  there  a 
local  interest  survived,  and  carried  over  the  memory 

*Persons  who  are  interested  in  the  early  ideas  respecting  the  species  of  silk 
worms,  should  consult  Moses  Bartram's  "Observations  on  the  Native  Silk 
Worms  of  North  America,"  1768,  published  in  Trans.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc.  i..  2nd 
ed.  294. 


142         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

of  the  old  ambitious  experiments  and  served  as  a  stim- 
ulus to  the  inception  of  an  enterprise  which  set  the 
country  aflame  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century. 
In  1806,  for  example,  Frederick  Pursh,  a  botanical 
traveler,  found  mulberries  cultivated  in  orchards  near 
Cayuga  Lake,  N.  Y.,  "may  be  for  the  raising  of  silk 
worms,  as  the  trees  were  low  and  planted  in  regular 
close  rows."  The  particular  event  which  seems  to  have 
awakened  general  interest  in  this  second  silk  enter- 
prise, was  the  report  of  the  Committee  on  Agriculture 
of  the  House  of  Representatives,  in  1826,  respecting 
the  imports  of  silks  and  the  exports  of  bread  stuffs. 
These  imports  were  increasing  with  wonderful  rapidity, 
while  the  exports  were  decreasing  in  like  ratio.  This 
committee  took  the  matter  up  in  pursuance  of  a  reso- 
lution introduced  into  the  House  on  the  29th  of 
December,  1825,  by  Mr.  Miner:  "Resolved,  That  the 
Committee  on  Agriculture  be  instructed  to  inquire 
whether  the  cultivation  of  the  mulberry  tree,  and  the 
breeding  of  silk  worms,  for  the  purpose  of  producing 
silk,  be  a  subject  worthy  of  legislative  attention;  and 
should  they  think  it  to  be  so,  that  they  obtain  such 
information  as  may  be  in  their  power,  respecting  the 
kind  of  mulberry  tree  most  preferred,  the  best  soil, 
climate,  and  mode  of  cultivation,  and  probable  value 
of  the  culture,  taking  into  view  the  capital  employed, 
the  labor,  and  the  product,  together  with  such  facts 
and  opinions  as  they  may  think  useful  and  proper." 
The  report  of  the  Committee  on  Agriculture,  made  on 
the  2nd  of  the  following  May,  contained  a  statement 
of  the  imports  and  exports  of  which  I  have  spoken, 
and  .it  requested  that  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
"cause  to  be  prepared  a  well -digested  Manual"  upon 


CONGRESS    ACTS  143 

the  culture  of  silk.  This  Manual  was  prepared  under 
the  direction  of  Secretary  Richard  Rush,  and  submitted 
to  the  Speaker  on  the  5th  of  February,  1828.  It  com- 
prises an  illustrated  volume  of  220  pages. 

Silk  culture  was  now  agitated  everywhere.    Congress 
took  it  up  time  and   again.     The    Senate  published   a 
treatise  on  the  subject  in  August,  1828,  by  De  Hazzi, 
Counsellor  of   State,  Germany,  who  had  been  attracted 
by    the   resolutions  of   the   House   of   Representatives. 
State  legislatures  considered  the  culture  of  silk.     Public 
meetings  of  all  sorts  took  up  the  refrain,  and  it  was 
echoed   from  housetop  to  housetop  from  Maine  to  the 
Gulf.     The  House  of  Representatives  of  Massachusetts 
had  the  question  up  in  1831,  and  it  passed  a  resolution 
that   "his    Excellency   the    Governor    be   requested    to 
cause  to  be  compiled  a  concise  Manual,  to  contain  the 
best  information  respecting  the  growth  of  the  Mulberry 
tree,  with  suitable  directions  for  the  culture  of  Silk, — 
and  that  this  manual  be  distributed  in  suitable  numbers 
in  the  city  of  Boston,  and  to  every  town  in  the  Com- 
monwealth.— That  to  defray  the  expense  thus  incurred, 
he  be  authorized  to  draw  his  warrant  on  the  treasury 
for  a  sum  not  exceeding  six  hundred  dollars."   Jonathan 
H.  Cobb,  of  Dedham,  who  had  had  considerable  success 
in    making    silk,   was    chosen    to   write    the    manual. 
The  book    quickly  went    to  second  and   third  editions. 
In    the   second   edition,    1833,   the   author   makes    this 
explanation:    "Since    the    publication    of    the    former 
edition  of   this  little  work,  the   Legislature  of   Massa- 
chusets  having  further  noticed  it  by  ordering  an  addi- 
tional  number  of  copies  to   be   purchased   for  further 
distribution   in   the    different   towns  of   this    Common- 
wealth;  and  the  Congress   of   the   United   States  hav- 


144         THE    EVOLUTION    OF     OUR    NATIVE     FRUITS 

ing  also  resolved  to  purchase  2,000  copies  for  distri- 
bution in  that  honorable  body  ;  the  author  has 
thought  it  his  duty  to  enlarge  the  present  edition 
by  giving  such  further  information  as  he  could  ob- 
tain *  *."  A  fourth  edition  was 
made  in  1839.  Other  books  appeared  in  various  parts 
of  the  country.  (See  pages  155  to  158.) 

The  wildest  notions  of  the  possibilities  of  this  new 
silk  culture  were  widespread,  and  took  conservative 
men  off  their  feet.  I  shall  make  an  extract  from 
Cobb's  Manual  in  support  of  this  statement ;  but 
before  doing  so  I  quote  a  contemporaneous  account  of 
Mr.  Cobb's  experiments,  taken  from  the  Boston  "Mer- 
cantile Journal,"  to  show  that  this  author  had  really 
had  a  successful  experience  with  silk -growing,  and  was 
able  to  speak  with  authority  :  "There  is  a  gentleman 
in  this  vicinity,  (Mr.  Cobb,  of  Dedham,)  who,  for  a 
shorter  period,  has  perhaps  been  working  as  effectively 
as  any  other  person  in  the  way  of  experiment.  He 
began  the  cultivation  of  the  mulberry  tree  in  1826 ;  and 
since  that  time,  notwithstanding  the  nature  of  the  soil, 
which  is  not  the  most  favorable,  has  extended  his 
operations  so  much  as  to  be  now  in  the  habit  of  bring- 
ing to  the  Boston  market  American  silk,  manufactured, 
to  the  amount  of  about  a  hundred  dollars  a  week,  the 
year  round."  Projecting  this  experience  at  Dedham 
across  the  country  at  large,  Mr.  Cobb  drew  a  picture 
which  is  vividly  like  the  florid  expectations  of  the  first 
American  silk  advocates,  exactly  two  centuries  before: 

"Now  taking  the  smallest  estimate  of  income,  and 
in  what  way  can  a  farmer,  remote  from  a  seaport. town, 
acquire  so  much,  with  so  little  capital  and  labor,  in 
about  five  weeks'  time?  If  any  person  will  point  out 


JONATHAN    COBB'S     PROPHECIES  145 

any  way,  and  prove  it,  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Legis- 
lature or  Agricultural  Society,  I  think  he  would  merit 
a  great  reward.  But  this  business  may  be  particularly 
recommended  to  overseers  of  the  poor  in  every  town, 
who  have  a  farm — and  every  town  ought  to  have  one — 
to  keep  their  paupers  ;  for  if  one -half  their  paupers 
are  able  to  gather  leaves  and  feed  the  worms  five  weeks, 
this  business  would  support  all  of  them  a  year,  exclu- 
sive of  the  cost  of  an  overseer.  Permit  me  to  suggest 
one  consideration  more, — if  all  the  highways  in  country 
towns  were  ornamented  with  a  row  of  mulberry  trees, 
on  each  side,  half  a  rod  apart,  each  mile  would  con- 
tain 1380  trees,  the  income  of  which,  after  seven 
years,  would  probably  pay  for  repairing  all  the  high- 
ways and  the  expenses  of  the  public  schools,  if  the 
inhabitants  would  restrain  their  cattle  and  sheep  from 
going  at  large.  There  is  another  method  of  producing 
silk  from  mulberry  trees,  one  year  after  transplanting 
them;  which  is,  to  plant  them  in  rows  3  feet  by 
2  apart,  which  would  give  about  7000  to  an  acre,  and 
every  other  year  with  a  sharp  instrument  to  cut  them 
off  within  three  or  four  inches  of  the  ground,  and 
feed  them  out  or  cut  off  every  year.  But  whether  this 
method  will  produce  as  much  or  more  silk  than  to 
omit  picking  the  leaves  for  seven  years,  I  have  not 
obtained  information  sufficient  to  decide. 

T'I  further  remark,  that  the  education  of  youth  is 
of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  public.  May  I  be 
permitted  to  address  the  inhabitants  of  every  school 
district,  that  they  would  seriously  and  without  delay, 
consider  the  importance  of  connecting  the  silk  business 
with  summer  schools,  by  procuring  two  or  three  acres 
of  suitable  land  near  each  school  house,  and  hare 


146         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

them  well  covered  with  mulberry  trees  and  fenced  with 
a  mulberry  hedge,  with  sheds  near  the  school  house, 
for  feeding  the  worms  and  reeling  the  silk;  and  hav- 
ing a  suitable  mistress  and  twenty  four  scholars  and 
over,  to  be  employed  in  gathering  leaves  and  feeding 
worms  at  times  not  interfering  with  regular  school 
hours,  for  the  term  of  four  months,  the  silk  worms 
to  be  hatched  in  succession,  once  in  eight  or  ten  days, 
and  the  produce  of  silk  will  be  more  than  enough  to 
pay  the  wages  and  board  of  the  mistress  at  $20  per 
month,  and  the  board  of  the  scholars  at  $1  per  week 
during  that  time.  This  can  be  proved  by  actual 
experiment  and  arithmetical  demonstration,  if  we  may 
believe  the  testimony  of  all  the  silk -growers  and 
authors  on  the  silk  business. 

"A  shed  may  be  erected  near  a  school  house  of  the 
following  dimensions;  viz.,  20  feet  long  and  16  wide, 
with  nine  feet  posts,  boarded  with  square  edged 
boards,  the  roof  shingled,  but  no  floor,  two  small 
windows,  one  at  each  end ;  two  frames  made  like 
ladders  for  four  tier  of  shelves  fifteen  feet  long  and 
four  and  a  half  wide,  the  lower  ends  of  the  ladders 
to  be  two  and  a  half  feet  above  the  ground,  and  two 
and  a  half  feet  between  them ;  at  one  end  of  the  shed 
four  more  shelves  the  height  of  the  others,  thirteen  feet 
long,  one  foot  and  eight  inches  wide ;  these  twelve 
shelves  will  serve  for  one  hundred  thousand  worms, 
and  will  consume  about  twenty  five  hundred  pounds  of 
leaves  previous  to  their  spinning  cocoons,  after  each 
hatching,  and  produce  two  hundred  and  eight  pounds 
of  cocoons  and  make  twenty  six  pounds  of  reeled  silk, 
according  to  Messrs.  Homergue's  and  Cobb's  calcula- 
tions ;  and  by  hatching  the  worms  in  succession  for 


DREAMS    OP    WEALTH  147 

sixteen  weeks,  the  second  hatching  in  fourteen  days 
after  the  first,  and  then  in  ten  days,  and  then  once  in 
eight  days,  until  there  is  ten  hatchings,  which  at  that 
rate  will  make  two  thousand  and  eighty  pounds  of 
cocoons,  and  two  hundred  and  sixty  pounds  of  reeled 
silk,  which,  at  the  lowest  price  that  Mr.  Cobb  has  sold 
his  for,  $4.50  per  pound,  amounts  to  $1,170,  or  selling 
the  cocoons  at  40  cents  the  price  at  Philadelphia,  they 
would  amount  to  $832 ;  or  say  25  cents,  the  lowest 
price  offered  anywhere,  they  amount  to  $520.  Then, 
allowing  the  mistress  $20  per  month,  and  the  board  of 
the  twenty  four  scholars  for  sixteen  weeks,  each  at  $1 
per  week,  it  amounts  to  $464,  which,  deducted  from 
$520,  there  remains  $56  ;  which  allowing  three  acres  of 
land  and  the  trees  to  cost  $600,  the  $56  will  pay  the 
interest  of  the  money  and  $20  left  to  pay  interest  for 
two  sheds  which  will  be  wanted  if  the  silk  is  reeled  ; 
thus  you  have  the  children  schooled  and  boarded 
without  any  expense  to  their  parents  or  the  town,  and 
interest  on  the  capital  in  the  bargain.  What  more  do 
you  want,  but  faith  and  resolution." 

The  author  recurs  to  his  estimates  of  profits  again 
and  again.  "Now,  let  a  young  man  of  21  years 
of  age,  of  steady  habits,"  he  advices,  "purchase  such 
an  establishment,  and  mortgage  it  for  security  of 
the  payment,  and  get  it  insured  against  fire  and  other 
casualities,  and  put  the  leaves  out  on  shares,  and  work 
himself  at  some  mechanical  or  agricultural  employment, 
he  would  at  the  expiration  of  twenty  years,  if  a  tem- 
perate man,  undoubtedly  acquire  double  the  property 
which  the  greater  number  of  professional  men  attain 
to,  who  must  have  a  large  sum  expended  upon  them 
previous  to  commencing  business." 


148         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

Just  at  the  time  when  the  public  began  to  feel  the 
excitement  of  the  new  silk  industry,  a  new  element 
was  added  to  the  contagion,  and  there  arose  the 
wildest  speculation  which  American  agriculture  has 
ever  known.  This  was  the  introduction  of  the  mul- 
ticaulis  mulberry.  Perrottet  had  introduced  a  new 
mulberry  into  France  from  the  Philippines  in  1824, 
the  large  leaves  and  rapid  growth  of  which  at  once 
attracted  the  attention  of  all  silk-growers.  It  turned 
out  that  this  tree  had  come  originally  from  China, 
and  was  thought  to  be  the  source  of  the  famous 
Chinese  silk.  Perrottet  called  it  Morus  mnlticaulix, 
from  its  habit  of  branching  or  sprouting  from  the  base. 
This  tree  reached  America  about  1826,  and  in  1830  or 
1831  it  was  introduced  into  Massachusetts  by  William 
Kenrick,  author  of  the  "New  American  Orchardist." 

The  fame  of  the  tree  spread  rapidly.  The  records 
of  the  next  ten  years  read  like  fiction.  Many  nursery- 
men gave  up  all  other  business  that  they  might  grow 
the  mulberry,  and  they  realized  several  hundred  per 
cent  profit.  The  secret  of  the  Chinese  silk  had  been 
discovered,  and  every  available  acre  from  New  Eng- 
land to  the  Gulf  must  be  covered  with  the  mulberry, 
and  men  must  train  their  hands  to  the  breeding  of  the 
worms  and  the  spinning  of  silken  threads  !  One  nur- 
seryman, who  is  still  living,  went  to  the  West  Indies, 
that  he  might  grow  hundreds  of  thousands  of  trees 
during  the  winter  season,  so  great  was  the  haste  for 
plants.  From  the  thinly  settled  parts  of  the  West 
the  planters  came  eager  for  trees  at  almost  any  price, 
and  even  in  Maine  the  demand  was  great.  Then 
came  the  reaction.  The  market  was  supplied  and  soon 
overstocked.  A  disease  appeared.  The  winters  of 


THE    MULTICAULIS     BUBBLE  149 

New  England  were  too  severe.  One  man  near  Hartford 
lost  nearly  ten  thousand  trees  from  cold.  Men  lost 
their  fortunes ;  and  in  1839  the  bubble  burst.  One 
man  near  Philadelphia  sold  250,000  trees  at  one  auction 
in  the  fall  of  that  year.  He  realized  31  cents  each, 
with  a  discount  of  7%  per  cent  for  cash.  His  buyers 
were  mostly  from  the  West.  The  eastern  men  had 
grown  cautious  before  this.  Other  dealers  sold  for 
much  less,  and  many  had  thousands  of  trees  left  upon 
their  hands.  "The  trees  were  sold,  in  some  instances, 
for  a  few  cents  each,  and  thousands,  if  not  millions, 
were  never  replanted  after  they  had  been  taken  out 
of  the  ground  in  the  fall  of  1839,"  runs  a  contem- 
porary account.  So  Morus  multicaulis  passed  from 
sight,  and  the  present  generation  knows  nothing  of 
it.  No  nurseryman  in  the  North  grows  it.  One  of  the 
last  specimens  in  the  East  was  cut  down  about  twelve 
years  ago.  It  stood  on  the  old  battle  ground  at  Ger- 
mantown.  Among  others  who  went  down  as  a  result 
of  this  great  collapse,  was  Jonathan  H.  Cobb,  who  in 
the  meantime  had  assisted  in  the  establishment  of  the 
Connecticut  Silk  Company,  at  Hartford.  But  his 
name  must  always  stand  amongst  those  enthusiastic 
and  prophetic  souls  who  contribute  so  much  to  the 
progress  of  the  world. 

I  cannot  leave  this  exciting  topic  without  quoting 
Brockett's  stirring  account  of  this  speculation,  which 
he  very  properly  calls  "The  Morus  multicaulis  mania": 
"One  after  another  of  the  experimenters  in  silk  culture 
began  to  advocate  the  Morus  multicaulis,  and  recom- 
mend their  friends  to  cultivate  the  trees,  and  raise  silk 
if  they  could ;  but  at  all  events  to  raise  multicaulis 
trees.  Grave  doctors  of  medicine  and  doctors  of  divin- 


150         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

ity,  men  learned  in  the  law,  agriculturists,  mechanics 
and  merchants,  and  women  as  well  as  men,  seemed  to 
be  infected  with  a  strange  frenzy  in  regard  to  this  mul- 
berry tree.  They  met  in  solemn  conclaves  over  bundles 
of  Morus  multicaulis  twigs,  discussing  seriously  the 
glorious  time  when,  in  the  not  distant  future,  every 
farm  should  be  a  nursery  for  the  young  trees,  every 
house  should  have  its  cocooneries  attached,  its  silk- 
worms of  the  bivoltine,  trivoltine  or  polyvoltine  breeds 
yielding  two,  three  or  four  crops  of  cocoons  per  year. 
The  farmers'  wives  and  daughters,  when  not  engaged 
in  feeding  the  worms,  were  to  reel  the  silk,  and  perhaps 
to  spin  and  twist  it,  till  silk  should  become  as  cheap 
as  cotton,  and  every  matron  and  maid  rejoice  in  the 
possession  of  at  least  a  dozen  silk  dresses.  It  does 
not  clearly  appear  where  and  on  what  occasions  they 
were  to  wear  these  dresses,  while  their  whole  time  was 
to  be  occupied  with  the  care  of  the  silk -worms  and 
cocoons. 

"Gideon  B.  Smith,  of  Baltimore,  is  said  to  have 
owned  the  first  multicaulis  tree  in  the  United  States, 
which  was  planted  in  1826  ;  but  Dr.  Felix  Pascalis,  of 
New  York,  was  the  first  to  make  known  to  the  public 
the  remarkably  rapid  growth  and  supposed  excellent 
qualities  of  the  tree ;  and  so  may  be  said  to  have 
opened  this  Pandora's  box,  from  which  so  many  evils 
escaped.  The  excitement  in  regard  to  the  Morus 
multicaulis  grew  steadily;  slowly,  indeed,  at  first,  but 
increasing  with  a  geometrical  progression  until  1839, 
when  it  culminated  in  utter  ruin  to  the  cultivators. 
The  shrewdest  and  wariest  operators,  men  who  did  not 
believe  in  its  loudly  heralded  virtues,  were  fairly  carried 
off  their  feet  by  the  surging  tide  of  speculation.  The 


MULTICAULIS    SPECULATION  151 

young  trees  or  cuttings,  which  were  sold  in  1834  or 
1835  for  $3  or  $5  a  hundred,  came  soon  to  be  worth 
$25,  $50,  $100,  $200,  and  even  $500  a  hundred.  The 
writer  well  recollects  being  in  Northampton  in  the 
spring  of  1839,  when  Mr.  Whitmarsh  and  Dr.  Stebbins 
were  rejoicing  over  the  purchase  of  a  dozen  multicaulis 
cuttings,  not  more  than  two  feet  long  and  of  the  thick- 
ness of  a  pipe-stem,  for  $25.  'They  are  worth  $60,' 
exclaimed  the  Doctor,  in  his  enthusiasm.  It  is  said 
that  a  florist  and  nurseryman,  on  Long  Island,  who  was 
one  of  the  first  to  introduce  the  tree  into  the  country, 
though  he  had  no  particular  faith  in  it,  devised  a  plan 
for  enhancing  its  price.  He  had  sold  small  quantities 
to  nurserymen  in  Providence  and  Newport,  and  several 
of  the  Massachusetts  cities  and  large  towns  ;  and  one 
day,  in  1835,  while  at  work  in  his  nursery,  he  deter- 
mined to  make  a  bold  push  for  a  speculation.  Hastily 
returning  to  his  house  and  putting  up  a  change  of 
apparel,,  he  mounted  his  sulky,  drove  into  New  York, 
and  on  board  the  Providence  boat.  Arriving  at  New- 
port, he  landed,  drove  to  the  first  nursery  there,  and 
asked,  in  an  excited  way,  'Have  you  any  multicaulis 
trees?'  'A  few,'  was  the  reply.  'I  will  give  you  fifty 
cents  apiece  for  all  you  have,'  said  the  Long  Islander. 
The  nurseryman  thought  a  moment.  'If,'  he  said  to 
himself,  'Mr.  —  —  is  willing  to  give  that  price  for 
them,  it  is  because  he  knows  they  are  worth  more.'  He 
raised  his  head.  'I  don't  think  I  want  to  sell  what 
few  I  have,  Mr.  —  — .'  'Very  well,'  was  the  reply; 
'I  presume  I  can  get  them  for  that,'  and  he  drove  off. 
Every  nurseryman  who  was  known  to  have  any  trees  in 
Newport,  Providence,  Worcester,  Boston,  or  the  towns 
adjacent,  Springfield,  Northampton,  &c.,  was  visited, 


152         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

the  same  offer  made,  and  the  same  answer  returned. 
'I  came  back,'  said  Mr.  -  — ,  'without  any  trees; 
but  you  could  not  have  bought  multicaulis  trees,  in  any 
of  the  towns  I  had  visited,  for  a  dollar  apiece,  although 
a  week  before  they  would  have  been  fully  satisfied  to 
have  obtained  twenty -five  cents  apiece  for  them.'  Yet 
this  very  man,  shrewd  as  he  was,  was  carried  off  his 
feet  by  the  greatness  of  the  demand  which  followed. 
He  imported  large  quantities  from  France,  multiplied 
his  cuttings  by  all  the  devices  known  to  his  profession  ; 
and  at  last,  so  enormous  were  his  sales,  that,  in  the 
winter  of  1838-9,  he  sent  an  agent  to  France  with 
$80,000  in  hand,  with  orders  to  purchase  one  million  or 
more  trees,  to  be  delivered  in  the  summer  and  fall. 
Before  the  whole  of  his  purchase  had  arrived,  the  crisis 
had  come.  The  nurseryman  had  failed  for  so  large  a 
sum  that  he  could  never  reckon  up  his  indebtedness  ; 
and  the  next  spring  his  multicaulis  trees  were  offered 
in  vain  to  the  neighboring  farmers  at  a  dollar  a  hun- 
dred, for  pea -brush. 

"Another  incident  related  of  the  speculation  was, 
that  after  the  crash  came  at  the  East,  some  of  the 
largest  holders  of  the  trees,  in  their  desire  to  get  them 
off  their  hands,  chartered  a  vessel  notorious^  un- 
seaworthy,  loaded  her  with  the  multicaulis  shrubs,  and 
sent  the  cargo  by  way  of  "New  Orleans  to  Indiana, 
insuring  it  in  one  of  the  marine  companies  at  a  high 
price.  Greatly  to  their  disappointment  the  vessel 
reached  New  Orleans  safely,  and  the  cargo  was  trans- 
shipped at  an  enormous  expense  to  river  boats,  and 
when  the  trees  reached  Indiana  they  found  no  one  who 
was  willing  to  take  them  as  a  gift.  This  discreditable 
adventure  cost  the  shippers  a  large  sum  of  money. 


MULTICAULIS    SPECULATION  153 

"The  times  were  rife  with  speculation.  The  great 
panic  and  disaster  of  1837  had  thrown  to  the  surface 
many  restless,  unscrupulous  spirits,  who  were  willing 
to  embark  in  any  enterprise,  however  daring  or  doubt- 
ful its  character,  which  seemed  to  promise  the  slightest 
opportunity  of  regaining  the  fortunes  they  had  lost. 
Numbers  of  these  plunged  into  the  multicaulis  specu- 
lation, and  made  it  more  disastrous  in  its  results  than 
it  otherwise  would  have  been  ;  but  there  is  this  ground 
of  consolation  in  regard  to  them,  that  not  one  of  them 
escaped  the  ruin  they  helped  to  bring  upon  others." 

I  will  transcribe  even  another  account  of  this  wild 
speculation,  in  order  that  the  reader  may  see  this 
curious  chapter  in  our  history  as  understood  by  different 
students.  The  following  is  extracted  from  a  paper 
on  "The  Silk  Industry  in  the  United  States  from 
1766  to  1874,"  by  A.  T.  Lilly,  contained  in  a  bulletin 
of  the  "National  Association  of  Wool  Manufacturers," 
1875.  Mr.  Lilly  speaks  of  this  speculation  as  the 
"multicaulis  fever,"  and  then  continues:  "Haste  to 
be  rich  led  the  way.  Instead  of  the  old  method  of 
planting  mulberry  orchards  with  the  well-known  and 
hardy  varieties  of  the  tree,  the  system  was  adopted  of 
securing  from  trees  of  a  single  season's  growth  leaves 
fit  for  feeding.  For  this  purpose,  planting  in  close 
hills  or  in  hedges  was  necessary,  and  the  Morus  multi- 
caulis was  the  favorite  tree.  Its  luxuriant  growth, 
when  stimulated,  was  indeed  remarkable.  Its  leaves, 
fed  to  the  worm,  produced  a  silk  that. was  not  equal 
in  quality  to  that  from  the  white  mulberry.  The  trees 
had  to  be  housed  in  winter,  either  in  cellars  or  in 
earth-vaults.  Notwithstanding  the  objections  to  it, 
the  multicaulis  grew  rapidly  in  popular  favor.  Rarely 


154         THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

was  a  garden  or  a  cultivated  spot  to  be  seen  without 
this  tree.  A  demand  for  the  trees  themselves  sprung 
up,— a  demand  that  gave  them  an  absurd  and  fac- 
titious value.  Prices  ranged,  for  trees  produced  from 
one  bud  or  cutting,  and  of  a  single  season's  growth, 
from  five  cents  to  ten,  twenty,  fifty  cents,  one  dollar, 
and  in  some  instances  five  dollars  apiece.  The  value 
of  trees  became  greater  than  that  of  the  silk  that 
could  be  obtained  by  them;  the  trees  were  worth  too 
much  to  be  used  for  silk  culture,  and  the  raising  of 
these  trees  became  a  speculative  business  of  great 
activity.  The  excitement  reached  its  culminating  point 
in  1839,  when  the  fortunes  of  many  thrifty  men  who 
had  embarked  in  the  enterprise  were  wrecked  in  bank- 
ruptcy. Even  then,  although  the  failure  of  the  multi- 
caulis  was  assured,  the  mania  for  raising  mulberry  - 
trees  was  not  abated,  hardier  varieties  being  its  objects. 
The  writer  was  witness  to  an  instance  of  the  height  to 
which  this  excitement  carried  prices,  and  places  the 
facts  here  as  a  matter  of  record.  Two  trees  of  one 
season's  growth,  raised  by  Elder  Sharp,  of  North 
Windham,  Conn.,  were  sold,  standing  in  his  nursery, 
in  August,  1842,  after  due  advertisement,  at  auction. 
The  first  one  offered  brought  $106,  the  second  $100; 
and  further  sales  were  withheld  because  the  bidding 
was  not  considered  as  sufficiently  spirited.  Disaster 
followed  this  baseless  speculation,  as  might  have  been 
anticipated,  when  the  price  of  the  trees  exceeded  the 
worth  of  the  product ;  .  and  in  1843-44  the  fabric  of 
artificial  values  collapsed.  A  deep  reaction  in  popular 
feeling  took  the  place  of  the  former  excitement ;  and 
the  whole  business  of  silk  culture  sank  into  disfavor, 
along  with  the  costly  and  now  neglected  mulberry -trees. 


LITERATURE  OP  1825  TO  1844         155 

A  blight  of  a  general  character,  to  which  even  the 
hardy  white  mulberry  yielded  at  last,  gave  the  finishing 
blow,  and  silk  culture  in  America  ceased  to  exist." 

Some  interest  in  the  multicaulis  mulberry  and  in 
silk -growing  lingered  on  after  the  crash  came  in  1839, 
but  the  hard  winter  of  1844  wiped  out  the  industry, 
and  the  second  great  epoch  of  silk -farming  in  America 
came  to  an  end.  This  second  epoch  may  be  said  to 
have  reached  from  1825  to  1844.  A  large  special 
literature  sprung  up  in  these  twenty  years.  To  show 
something  of  the  extent  of  this  literature,  I  note  be- 
low the  titles  of  the  books  of  this  period  which  are 
in  my  own  library  at  this  writing  : 

AMERICAN  SILK  GROWER,  THE  ;  AND  FARMER'S  MANUAL.  A  new 
monthly  publication,  designed  to  extend  and  encourage  the 
growth  of  silk  throughout  the  United  States.  Edited  by  Ward 
Cheney  &  Brothers,  Burlington,  N.  J.  Philadelphia:  Published 
by  Charles  Alexander.  No.  6  (vol.  i.),  Dec.,  1838;  No.  7, 
Jan.,  1839;  No.  9,  March,  1839;  No.  10,  April,  1839.  Pp.  24 
in  each  issue. 

CLAPP,  AARON.  An  Experiment  on  the  Morus  multicaulis,  with 
Directions  for  Preserving  Silk  Worms'  Eggs,  and  Feeding  Silk 
Worms,  and  twenty  receipts  for  making  cheap  dyes  for  coloring 
sewing  silks.  With  a  supplement  containing  extracts  from 
various  authors  in  relation  to  the  profit  of  raising  silk.  Hart- 
ford: Printed  by  Case,  Tiffany  &  Co.  Copyr.  1839.  1839.* 
Illustr.  Pp.  72. 

CLARKE,  JOHN.  Treatise  on  the  Mulberry  Tree  and  Silkworm. 
And  on  the  Production  and  Manufacture  of  Silk.  Second 
edition.  Philadelphia:  Thomas,  Cowperthwait  &  Co.  Copyr. 
1839.  1839.  Illustr.  Pp.  363. 

COBB,  J.  H.  A  Manual  Containing  Information  Respecting  the 
Growth  of  the  Mulberry  Tree,  with  Suitable  Directions  for  the 
Culture  of  Silk.  In  three  parts.  Boston:  Carter,  Hendee  & 
Co.  1831.  Illustr.  Pp.  68. 

*Date  of  imprint,  or  title-page. 


156         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 


.     The  same.     New  edition.     1833.     Pp.  98. 

.  The  same.  (Bound  with  Essays  on  American  Silk,  by 

John  d'Homergue  and  Peter  Stephen  Duponceau,  and  A  Prac- 
tical Treatise  on  the  Culture  of  Silk,  by  F.  G.  Comstoek.) 

.     The  same.     Fourth  edition,  enlarged.     Boston:     Weeks, 


Jordan  &  Co.     Copyr.  1839.     1839.     lllustr.     Pp.  162. 

COMSTOCK,  F.  G.  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Culture  of  Silk, 
adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate  of  the  United  States.  Hart- 
ford: Wm.  G.  Comstoek.  Copyr.  1836.  1836.  lllustr.  Pp. 
106. 

.  The  same.  (Bound  with  Essays  on  American  Silk,  by 

John  d'Homergue  and  Peter  Stephen  Duponceau,  and  A  Man- 
ual containing  Information  respecting  the  Growth  of  the  Mul- 
berry Tree,  by  J.  H.  Cobb.) 

DENNIS,  JONATHAN,  JR.  Dennis'  Silk  Manual:  Containing  com- 
plete directions  for  cultivating  the  different  kinds  of  mulberry 
trees,  feeding  silk  worms,  and  manufacturing  silk  to  profit, 
adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  American  cultivator,  and  believed 
to  contain  more  practical  information  than  any  similar  work 
now  before  the  public.  With  a  supplement  of  extracts  from 
various  authors  in  relation  to  the  profit  of  raising  silk.  In 
three  parts.  New  York:  Mahlon  Day  &  Co.  Copyr.  1839. 
1839.  lllustr.  Pp.  107. 

D'HOMERGUE,  JOHN,  and  DUPONCEAU,  PETER  STEPHEN.  Essays  on 
American  Silk,  and  the  best  means  of  rendering  it  a  source  of 
individual  and  national  wealth.  With  directions  to  farmers 
for  raising  silk  worms.  Philadelphia:  John  Grigg.  Copyr. 
1830.  1830.  lllustr.  Pp.  120. 

— .  The  same.  (Bound  with  a  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Cul- 
ture of  Silk,  by  F.  G.  Comstoek,  and  A  Manual  containing 
Information  respecting  the  Growth  of  the  Mulberry  Tree,  by 
J.  H.  Cobb.) 

FESSENDEN'S  PRACTICAL  FARMER  AND  SILK  MANUAL.  Devoted  to 
Agriculture,  Rural  Economy,  and  the  Culture  of  Silk.  T.  G. 
Fessenden,  editor.  Boston:  Puplished  Monthly,  by  George 
C.  Barrett.  Vol.  i.,  May  1835  to  April  1836.  Pp.  192.  Vol. 
ii.,  May  1836  to  April  1837.  Pp.  192. 


LITERATURE  157 

HAZZI,  DE  (COUNT  VON).  A  Treatise  on  the  Culture  of  Silk  in 
Germany,  and  especially  in  Bavaria:  or,  Complete  Instruction 
for  the  Plantation  and  the  Management  of  Mulberry  Trees,  and 
the  Rearing  of  Silkworms.  Washington :  "  Printed  by  order  of 
the  Senate  of  the  United  States."  1828.  Illustr.  Pp.  106. 
Transmitted  to  Congress  by  James  Mease. 

[JULIEN,  STANISLAS.]  Summary  of  the  Principal  Chinese  Trea- 
tises upon  the  Culture  of  the  Mulberry  and  the  Rearing  of  Silk 
Worms.  Translated  from  the  Chinese.  Washington  :  Peter 
Force.  Copyr.  1838.  1838.  Illustr.  Pp.  198. 

["This  'Summary'  was  first  translated  from  the  Chinese  by 
Stanislas  Julien,  member  of  the  French  Institute,  and  Professor 
of  Chinese  Literature,  in  the  College  of  France,  and  printed  at 
the  Royal  Press,  in  Paris,  by  order  of  the  Minister  of  Public 
Works,  Agriculture,  and  Commerce.  The  French  copy  from 
which  this  translation  was  made,  was  transmitted  from  Paris, 
to  the  Secretary  of  State,  and  by  his  recommendation  has  been 
translated  and  published  here."— Note  by  the  Publisher.] 

KENRICK,  WILLIAM.  The  American  Silk  Grower's  Guide;  or,  The 
Art  of  Raising  the  Mulberry  and  Silk  on  the  System  of  Succes- 
sive Crops  in  each  Season.  Boston:  George  C.  Barrett  and 
Russell,  Idiorne  &  Co.  Copyr.  1835.  1835.  Pp.  111. 
— .  The  same.  Second  edition,  enlarged  and  improved. 
Boston:  Weeks,  Jordan  &  Co.  Copyr.  1839.  Illustr.  Pp.167. 

LARDNER,  REV.  DIONYSIUS.  A  Treatise  on  the  Origin,  Progres- 
sive Improvement,  and  Present  State  of  the  Silk  Manufacture. 
Philadelphia:  Carey  &  Lea.  1832.  Illustr.  Pp.  276.  (One 
of  the  Cabinet  Cyclopaedia  Series.) 

MORIN,  M.  The  Silk  Raiser's  Manual;  or,  The  Art  of  Raising 
and  Feeding  Silk  Worms  and  of  Cultivating  the  Mulberry  Tree. 
Boston:  Marsh,  Capen  &  Lyon.  Copyr.  1836.  1836.  Illustr. 
Pp.  128. 

PASCALIS,  FELIX.  Practical  Instructions  and  Directions  for  Silk- 
worm Nurseries,  and  for  the  Culture  of  the  Mulberry  Tree. 
Vol.  i.  New  York :  William  B.  Gilley.  1829.  Illustr.  Pp. 
112. 


158         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

ROBERTS,  EDWARD  P.  A  Manual,  containing  Directions  for  Sow- 
ing, Transplanting  and  Raising  the  Mulberry  Tree;  together 
with  proper  Instructions  for  Propagating  the  Same  by  Cuttings, 
Layers,  &c.,  &c.  As  also,  Instructions  for  the  Culture  of 
Silk:  to  which  is  added,  Calculations  Shewing  the  Produce  and 
probable  Expense  of  Cultivating  of  from  one  to  ten  Acres,  as 
tested  by  actual  Results.  Third  edition,  with  improvements 
and  additions.  Baltimore:  Samuel  Sands.  1838.  Pp.100. 

RUSH,  RICHARD,  Compiler.  Growth  and  Manufacture  of  Silk, 
adapted  to  the  different  parts  of  the  Union.  February  7,  1828, 
Referred  to  the  Committee  on  Agriculture.  Doc.  No.  158,  Ho. 
of  Reps.,  20th  Congress,  1st  session.  Washington:  1828. 
Illustr.  Pp.  220. 

SILK  QUESTION  SETTLED,  THE.  The  Testimony  of  One  Hundred 
and  Fifty  Witnesses.  Report  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  National 
Convention  of  Silk  Growers  and  Silk  Manufacturers,  held  in 
New  York,  Oct.  13th  and  14th,  1843.  Published  under  direction 
of  the  American  Institute.  Second  edition,  with  additions. 
Boston:  Printed  by  T.  R.  Marvin.  1844.  Pp.  80. 

VERNON,  WILLIAM  H.  A  Methodical  Treatise  on  the  Cultivation 
of  the  Mulberry  Tree,  on  the  Raising  of  Silk  Worms,  and  on 
Winding  the  Silk  from  the  Cocoons.  United  to  an  accurate 
description  of  the  Winding  Mill.  With  plates.  Abridged  from 
the  French  of  M.  De  la  Brousse:  with  Notes  and  an  Appendix. 
Boston:  Hilliard,  Gray  &  Co.  Copyr.  1828.  1828.  Illustr. 
Pp.  174. 

WHITMARSH,  SAMUEL.  Eight  Years'  Experience  and  Observation 
in  the  Culture  of  the  Mulberry  Tree,  and  in  the  Care  of  the 
Silk  Worm.  With  remarks  adapted  to  the  American  system  of 
producing  raw  silk  for  exportation.  Northampton:  J.  H. 
Butler.  Copyr.  1839.  1839.  Illustr.  Pp.  156. 


An   Account   of  the   Mulberries 

There  is  now  practically  no  effort  to  grow  silk  in 
North  America  upon  a  commercial  scale.  The  restric- 
tions of  climate,  the  greater  certainty  of  many  other 


CAUSE    OF    THE    FAILURES  159 

crops,  the  opening  of  trade  directly  with  China  and 
Japan,  the  cheaper  labor  of  France  and  Italy, — all  these 
factors  have  made  the  business  precarious  and  unprofit- 
able. "This  branch  of  industry,"  writes  the  botanist- 
traveler,  Michaux,  early  in  this  century,  "is  adapted 
only  to  a  populous  country,  where  there  are  hands  not 
required  for  the  cultivation  of  the  earth  that  may  be 
employed  in  manufactures  so  as  to  afford  their  products 
at  moderate  prices.  In  the  United  States  this  period  is 
still  remote."  Yet  the  persistent  experiments  to  grow 
silk  have  been  productive  of  good  results,  aside  from 
teaching  us  what  the  limitations  of  our  country  are. 
A  very  large  silk -manufacturing  industry  has  arisen, 
the  fabrics  being  made  from  imported  raw  silks.  The 
net  annual  value  of  the  finished  goods  of  American 
manufacture  is  about  seventy  million  dollars,  and  the 
annual  imports  of  raw  silks  reach  about  six  million 
pounds. 

But  there  is  another  curious  development  of  all 
this  early  experiment,  the  history  and  evolution  of 
which  had  never  been  traced  until  the  present  writer 
made  the  attempt  in  an  experiment  station  bulletin  a 
few  years  ago.*  This  second  outcome  is  the  evolution 
of  the  mulberry  itself,  and  this  is  the  theme  which 
forms  the  proper  subject  and  conclusion  of  all  this  dis- 
cussion of  American  silk -growing.  Historians  have 
followed  the  course  of  the  development  of  the  silk 
industry,  but  have  neglected  the  subsequent  course  of 
the  mulberry,  upon  which  all  the  efforts  at  silk  produc- 
tion have  rested.  The  reasons  for  this  oversight  are 
the  comparative  unimportance  of  the  mulberry  for  any 


•Mulberries,  Bull.  46,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  (Mot-ember,  1892). 


THE    TYPES    OF    MULBERRIES  161 

other  use  thaii  the  feeding  of  silk  worms,  and  the 
botanical  perplexities  of  the  genus  Morus,  to  which 
lln-sc  trees  belong. 

For  two  or  three  centuries  the  earth  has  been 
searched  for  new  forms  of  mulberry  trees  for  the  feed- 
ing of  the  silk  worm.  All  the  best  types  have  been 
found  to  be  forms  of  the  white  mulberry  (Morns  alba] 
of  China,  or  types  which  are  evidently  direct  offshoots 
of  it.  This  type  of  mulberry  trees  produces  fruit  of 
inferior  quality,  and  little  effort  has  been  made  to 
develop  fruit -bearing  varieties  of  it.  The  fruit- 
bearing  mulberry  of  history  is  another  species,  the 
black  mulberry  (Morus  nigra) ,  probably  a  native  of 
Persia  and  adjacent  regions.  But  there  has  been  very 
little  desire  for  the  introduction  of  a  fruit -bearing  mul- 
berry in  this  countrjr,  so  that  the  black  mulberry  is 
little  known  here,  although  horticultural  writers  have 
generally  referred  any  valuable  fruit -bearing  mulberry 
which  has  chanced  to  appear  in  this  country  to  Morus 
nifjrn,  because  this  is  the  species  described  in  the  Euro- 
pean fruit-books.  A  third  important  factor  in  the 
evolution  of  American  mulberries  is  the  re -introduction 
in  recent  years  of  the  Morus  Tatar  ica,  now  generally 
known  in  this  country  as  the  Russian  mulberry,  and 
which  is  really  only  an  outlying  form  of  the  white 
mulberry. 

A  fourth  important  factor  is  the  native  red  or 
purple  mulberry  (Morus  rubra,  Figs.  20,  21),  and  to 
this  we  need  to  give  special  attention  in  this  explora- 
tion of  the  evolution  of  our  native  fruits.  The  species 
is  greatly  variable,  and  it  grows  naturally  from  west- 
ern New  England  and  Long  Island  to  Florida  and 
Kansas  and  Texas.  It  is  mentioned  by  very  many  of 


162         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

the  early  adventurers  and  narrators  of  the  colonization 
and  colonial  periods  of  the  country,  and  it  was  often 
used  as  a  food  for  the  silk  worm.  It  appears  to  have 
been  originally  found  in  the  Massachusetts  Bay  region, 
for  Francis  Higginson  speaks  of  "mulberries,"  amongst 


•  Fig.  21 


mulberry,  as  it  grows  in  central  N 


other  wild  fruits,  in  his  "New  -England's  Plantation," 
published  in  1630  ;  but  it  is  not  now  indigenous  to  that 
region.  William  Strachey,  who  was  in  Virginia  about 
1610  to  1612,  and  wrote  a  "Historic  of  Travaile  into 
Virginia  Britannia,"  says  that  the  Indians  were  familiar 
with  the  tree:  "By  their  dwellings  are  some  great 
mulberrye  trees,  and  these  in  some  parte  of  the  country 
are  found  growing  naturally  in  pretty  groves:  there 
was  an  assay  made  to  make  silke,  and  surely  the 


THE    NATIVE     MULBERRY  163 

wormes  prospered  excellently  well  untill  the  master 
workeman  fell  sick,  during  which  tyme  they  were  eaten 
with  ratts,  and  this  willbe  a  commoditie  not  meanely 
profitable.  Now  yt  is  seriously  considered  of,  and 
order  taken  that  yt  shalbe  duly  followed."  A  part  of 
this  statement,  in  the  identical  words,  is  found  in  John 
Smith's  earlier  account  of  the  natural  productions  of 
Virginia.  The  tree  was  early  spread  widely  in  the 
settlements.  In  1749,  Peter  Kalm  found  it  planted  at 
Montreal,  where  it  had  been  brought  some  twenty 
years  before,  but  the  most  northerly  place  at  which  he 
knew  it  to  grow  naturally  was  "about  twenty  English 
miles  north  of  Albany."  It  was  early  introduced  into 
Europe. 

Although  this  red  mulberry  was  early  planted  in 
cultivated  grounds,  no  attempt  appears  to  have  been 
made  to  improve  its  fruit.  Michaux  speaks  of  it  early 
in  this  century  as  follows:  "The  fruit  *  *  *  * 
might  easily  be  augmented  in  size  and  quantity  by 
careful  cultivation  :  a  very  sensible  improvement  is 
witnessed  in  trees  left  standing  in  cultivated  fields." 
William  Prince,  writing  in  his  "Treatise  on  Horticul- 
ture," in  1828,  speaks  of  the  "Red  American,  a  com- 
mon native  of  our  forests,"  as  one  of  the  "most 
valued"  mulberries  "for  their  fruit,"  but  he  knew  no 
named  varieties.  The  Congressional  Manual  of  1828 
gives  a  good  account  of  the  distribution  and  attributes 
of  the  native  red  mulberry.  "There  are  several  varie- 
ties in  the  red  mulberry  tree,"  it  says,  "depending  on 
the  leaves  and  fruit : 

"1.  Leaves  all  orbiculated  (round). 

"2.       do  deeply  lobed. 

"3.       do  with  three  short  lobes. 


164         THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

"4.  Fruit,  berries  nearly  white. 

"5.  Fruit,  berries  blueish  purple. 

"6.      do         do      red  and  long. 

"7.      do         do      blackish  red." 

Up  to  this  time,  no  distinct  domestic  variety  of  the 
red  mulberry  had  been  introduced.  Yet  it  is  a  signifi- 
cant fact  that  the  first -named  variety  of  mulberry 
originating  in  this  country  is  an  offspring  of  this  wild 
Morns  rulra,  and  not  an  offshoot  of  the  many  foreign 
types  which  had  been  introduced  here.  This  variety 
is  the  Johnson.  The  first  mention  of  it,  so  far  as  I 
know,  is  in  the  first  edition  of  Downing's  "Fruits  and 
Fruit  Trees,"  in  1845. 

Four  well-marked  named  varieties  of  this  red  mul- 
berry have  appeared  in  cultivation, —  the  Johnson, 
Hicks,  Stubbs,  and  Lampasas,  the  first  three  named 
for  persons  who  were  instrumental  in  introducing 
them  to  the  public.  They  are  all  chance  varieties  found 
in  the  woods  or  wild  places.  If  the  mulberry  were  a 
fruit  of  great  importance,  numbers  of  distinct  varieties 
would  no  doubt  soon  be  bred  from  this  native  mulberry 
stock.  In  the  original  edition  of  A.  J.  Downing's 
"Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees,"  1845,  it  is  said  that  the 
variety  known  as  Johnson  has  been  "lately  received 
from  Professor  Kirtland,  of  Cleveland,  one  of  the  most 
intelligent  horticulturists  in  the  country ; "  and  it  is 
distinctly  stated  that  it  is  a  form  of  our  native  species. 
Charles  Downing  reaffirms  this  latter  statement  in 
Purdy's  "Fruit  Recorder,"  in  1872,  and  in  comparing 
the  fruit  with  that  of  the  wild  Morus  rubra,  says  that 
it  is  "of  about  the  same  quality,  but  of  larger  size." 
In  the  second  revision  of  "Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees," 
1872,  by  Charles  Downing,  it  is  described  as  follows: 


THE    NATIVE    MULBERRY  165 

"A  seedling  from  Ohio.  Fruit  very  large,  oblong 
cylindric;  blackish  color,  subacid,  and  of  mild,  agree- 
able flavor.  Growth  of  the  wood  strong  and  irregular. 
Leaves  uncommonly  large."  The  Johnson  is  very  little 
known  at  the  present  time,  and  will  probably  soon  pass 
from  sight.  Mr.  Berckmans,  of  Georgia,  writes  that 
the  "fruit  is  large,  very  good,  but  too  little  of  it,"  and 
that  he  has  "long  since  discarded  it."  "The  fruit," 
he  says  "is  fully  two  inches  long  by  three -fourths  inch 
in  diameter,  very  black  and  of  a  rich,  vinous  flavor." 

The  Hicks  (or  Hicks'  Everbearing)  is  a  Georgian 
variety,  as  near  as  I  can  learn,  although  Downing,  in 
1872,  credits  it  to  Kentucky.  It  was  brought  to  notice 
about  1850,  or  before,  by  Simri  Rose,  of  Macon, 
Georgia,  who  is  said  to  have  obtained  it  from  Thomas 
Elkins,  of  Effingham  county,  Georgia.  Mr.  Elkins 
"planted  it  in  avenues,  on  his  lanes,  in  his  fence 
corners,  and  many  other  favorite  places  on  his  plan- 
tation, for  his  hogs,  and  it  is  said  that  he  always  had 
pork  or  bacon  to  sell."  At  the  present  time  it  is  much 
used  in  parts  of  the  South  as  a  food  for  swine.  Mr. 
Berckmaus  says  that  "the  value  of  mulberries  as  an 
economic  food  for  hogs  is  beginning  to  be  appreciated 
by  many  farmers,  who  have  planted  large  orchards  of 
the  Hicks  for  that  purpose."  It  is  also  one  of  the  very 
best  varieties  for  poultry.  It  is  a  most  profuse  bearer, 
producing  a  continuous  and  bountiful  crop  for  three 
and  four  months.  The  fruit  is  medium  to  large,  very 
sweet,  and  rather  insipid. 

The  original  Stubbs  mulberry  tree  was  found  grow- 
ing in  a  wood  near  Dublin,  Laurens  county,  Georgia. 
Col.  John  M.  Stubbs,  of  that  place,  gave  cions  to  Mr. 
Berckmans  some  twenty  years  ago,  and  Mr.  Berckraaus 


166         THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUE    NATIVE    FRUITS 

introduced  it  to  the  public.  It  is  probably  the  most 
productive  of  all  mulberries,  even  exceeding  the  wonder- 
ful prolificacy  of  the  Hicks.  The  fruit  is  deep  black, 
with  a  very  rich,  subacid,  vinous  flavor.  It  is  fully 
two  inches  long  and  over  a  quarter  as  thick  in  well- 
developed  specimens. 

The  Lampasas  variety  was  found  in  the  woods  in 
Lampasas  county,  Texas,  by  F.  M.  Ramsey,  and  was 
introduced  in  1889  by  T.  V.  Munson,  of  Denison, 
Texas.  It  has  a  somewhat  spreading  and  shrub -like 
habit.  Mr.  Munson  writes  of  it:  "The  Lampasas 
mulberry,  although  a  native  of  the  region  only  200 
miles  southwest  of  here,  is  so  tender  here  as  to  winter- 
kill. I  have  ceased  to  propagate  it  on  that  account. 
I  have  never  been  able  to  fruit  it."  This  variety  is 
interesting  to  the  botanist  because  it  belongs  to  the 
pubescent -leaved  type  of  the  mulberry,  to  which 
Rafinesque  gave  the  name  Morus  tomentosa  in  his 
monograph  of  North  American  mulberry  trees,  and 
which  Bureau,  a  more  recent  monographer,  called 
Morus  rubra  var.  tomentosa. 

The  Mexican  mulberry  (Morus  ceUidifolia),  which 
reaches  as  far  north  as  Texas,  New  Mexico  and  Arizona, 
"in  the  countries  south  of  the  United  States  is  fre- 
quently planted  as  a  fruit-tree,"  writes  Sargent,  in  his 
great  "Silva,"  quoting  from  Kunth,  "although  the 
fruit  which  it  produces  is  inferior  in  size  and  flavor  to 
that  of  the  red  and  black  mulberry  trees."  This  and 
the  common  red  mulberry  are  the  only  species  native 
to  the  United  States. 

We  must  now  enquire  if  the  foreign  types  of  mul- 
berry trees,  which  were  early  introduced  for  the 
feeding  of  silk  worms,  have  given  any  fruit-bearing 


THE    BLACK    MULBERRY  167 

varieties  of  importance  ;  for  although  these  trees  are 
somewhat  foreign  to  the  purpose  of  a  book  upon  native 
fruits,  we  may  find  their  evolution  to  be  so  interesting 
that  we  cannot  forego  the  pleasure  of  an  acquaintance- 
ship with  them.  We  have  already  learned  that  the 
fruit -bearing  mulberry  of  the  Old  World,  and  therefore 
of  history,  is  the  black  (Morus  nigra) ,  and  that  our 
own  cultivated  varieties  have  been  assumed  to  belong 
to  it.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  it  is  very  little 
known  in  America.  It  is  not  hardy,  except  in  pro- 
tected places,  in  New  England  and  New  York.  The 
Black  Persian  mulberry  of  the  South  and  of  California 
is  undoubtedly  this  species.  This  variety,  with  others, 
was  inserted  in  the  fruit  catalogue  of  the  American 
Pomological  Society  for  1875.  It  was  dropped  from 
the  catalogue  in  1883,  and  has  not  been  inserted  since. 
It  is  named  in  Wickson's  "California  Fruits,"  1889, 
without  particular  comment.  The  same  volume  also 
mentions  the  black  mulberry  of  Spain,  as  having  been 
fruited  by  Felix  Gillet,  of  Nevada  City,  California. 
This  I  take  to  be  Morus  nigra.  There  must  be  large 
regions  in  this  country  which  are  congenial  to  the  true 
black  mulberry,  and  it  is  strange  that  it  is  so  little 
known.  The  fruit  of  this  species  is  much  larger  than 
that  of  any  other,  and  it  possesses  an  agreeable  subacid 
flavor.  The  fruits  of  the  white  mulberry  (Morns  alba), 
however,  are  often  too  sweet  for  most  tastes  when 
fully  ripe,  and  in  such  case  they  should  be  picked 
before  they  have  fully  matured. 

We  have  seen  that  the  multicaulis  mulberry  quickly 
passed  from  sight  after  the  speculative  collapse  of  1839 
and  the  hard  winter  of  1844.  Yet  one  record  of  the 
old  contagion  is  left  to  us  in  the  Downing  mulberry 


168         THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 


(Fig.  22).  This  originated  at  Newburgh  on  the  Hud- 
son, from  seeds  sown  about  1846  by  Charles  Downing, 
one  of  the  brothers  who  have  become  household  com- 
panions to  every  American  fruit-grower.  It  was 
noticed  by  the  late  C.  M.  Hovey  in  his  "Magazine  of 
Horticulture,"  in  March,  1858,  as  "a  new  seedling 
raised  by  C.  Downing,  of  Newburgh,  N.  Y.,  from  the 
Moms  multicaulis."  The  Downing  often  looks  very 
different  from  the  old  multicaulis,  and  I  have  some- 
times doubted  if  its  history  is  correct ;  but  there  is 
probably  no  mistake  as  to  its  origin.  For  many  years 
the  Downing  was  the  leading  fruit -bearing  mulberry, 
but  it  proved  to  be  short-lived,  and  was  often  injured 
by  the  winters  in  the  northern  states  ;  and  even  as  far 
south  as  Texas  it  frequently  suffers  from  the  cold.  In 
Florida  and  other  parts  of  the  South  it  is  still  some- 
what grown,  particularly  as  cuttings 
upon  which  to  graft  varieties  which 
root  less  freely.  Yet  the  nurserymen 
everywhere  still  sell  the  Downing  mul- 
berry ;  but  it  turns  out,  upon  inves- 
tigation, that  the  Downing  which  they 
sell  is  not  the  variety  originated  by 
the  Down  ings.  In  fact,  it  is  not  even 
Morus  multicaulis!  The  variety  which, 
in  good  faith,  they  sell  for  Downing  is 
really  a  form  of  Morus  alba,  the  species 
which  elsewhere  in  the  world  is  grown 
only  for  the  silk -worm  or  for  orna- 
With  the  gradual  passing  out  of  the  Down- 
ing has  come  the  gradual  usurpation  of  the  name 
and  the  good -will  by  a  variety  of  the  other  species, 
and  no  man  has  recorded  the  transfer;  and  now  the 


Fie.  22. 
mulberry,  nearly 
natural  size. 

ment! 


THE    STRANGE    RESULT  169 

true  Downing  is  all  but  lost  to  cultivation,  and  the 
false  variety  is  gaining  in  reputation.  It  is  an  excel- 
lent illustration  of  the  operation  of  the  struggle  for 
existence,  and  the  better  has  survived  ;  but  the  wonder 
is  that  such  a  striking  transformation  could  take  place 
before  our  very  eyes  and  we  see  it  not ! 

The  variety  which,  in  the  North,  is  sold  as  Down- 
ing, is  really  the  New  American.  This  variety  was 
brought  to  notice  about  1854,  by  N.  H.  Lindley,  of 
Bridgeport,  Connecticut.  No  one  knows  its  history, 
but  it  is  undoubtedly  a  chance  seedling  of  one  of  the 
old  silk-worm  mulberries.  Two  other  varieties,  the 
Trovvbridge  and  Thorburn,  are  almost  indistinguishable 
from  it,  and  of  these  the  history  is  also  unknown ;  but 
they  are  forms  of  Morus  alba.  The  Russian  mulberry 
type  has  also  given  us  large -fruited  varieties  within 
recent  years.  Two  of  these  which  have  received 
names  are  Ramsey  White  and  Victoria.  A  Japanese 
mulberry,  too  (Morus  Japonica),  has  been  introduced, 
but  it  has  not  yet  given  us  important  fruit -bearing 
varieties. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  our  cultivated  mulberry 
flora,  although  small,  is  yet  delightfully  confused  ;  but 
the  confusion,  when  once  understood,  is  found  to  be 
the  result  of  a  curious  evolution,  in  the  course  of  which 
the  old-time  fruit -bearing  mulberry  has  lost  its  promi- 
nence, the  native  mulberry  has  come  to  the  fore,  the 
epoch-making  multicaulis,  introduced  for  silk,  came  to 
be  grown  for  its  fruit,  and  its  best  fruit -producing 
variety  has  been  driven  out  by  a  variety  of  another 
species  which  has  heretofore  been  grown  only  for 
silk  ;  and  the  entire  transformation  has  been  wrought 
by  intelligent  men  who  were  ignorant  of  it ! 


Ill 

THE  EVOLUTION  OF  AMERICAN  PLUMS 
AND  CHERRIES 

THE  early  records  mention  plums  nearly  as  fre- 
quently as  they  speak  of  grapes.  In  fact,  the  abun- 
dance of  many  kinds  of  wild  fruits  made  a  great 
impression  upon  all  the  settlers  of  America,  from  the 
valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence  to  Georgia.  The  wild 
plum  tree  was  seen  and  admired  by  Jacques  Cartier, 
upon  his  visit  to  the  St.  Lawrence  River  in  1535.  In 
the  preliminary  reconnoissance  of  the  Cape  Cod  region, 
various  fruit  plants  were  encountered.  Bradford  and 
Winslow,  in  their  journal,  speak  of  "vines  everywhere, 
cherry  trees,  plum  trees,  and  many  others  which  we 
know  not."  Edward  Winslow  writes  to  a  friend  in 
England  in  1621,  from  Plymouth,  of  "grapes,  white  and 
red,  and  very  sweet  and  strong  also ;  strawberries, 
gooseberries,  raspas,  &c.;  plums  of  three  sorts,  white 
black,  and  red,  being  almost  as  good  as  a  damson." 
Francis  Higgiuson,  in  his  "New-Englands  Plantation," 
1630,  mentions  the  following  amongst  the  natural 
productions  of  the  country:  "Mulberries,  Plums, 
Raspberries,  Corrance,  Chesnuts,  Filberds,  Walnuts, 
Smalnuts,  Hurtleberries  and  Hawes  of  White -thorne 
naere  as  good  as  our  Cherries  in  England,  they  grow 
in  plentie  here."  Thomas  Morton,  in  his  "New  English 
Canaan,"  1632,  makes  the  following  reference:  "Plum- 
trees,  of  this  kind  there  are  many ;  some  that  beare 
(170) 


EARLY  ACCOUNTS  OP  PLUMS          171 

fruit  as  bigg  as  our  ordinary  bullis :  others  there 
be,  that  doe  beare  fruite  much  bigger  than  peare 
plumraes,  their  colour  red,  and  their  stones  flat,  very 
delitious  in  taste."  William  Wood  gives  a  more 
explicit  account  of  the  wild  cherries  and  plums,  in 
his  "New  England's  Prospect,"  published  in  1634: 
"The  Cherrie  trees  yeeld  great  store  of  Cherries  which 
grow  on  clusters  like  grapes ;  they  be  much  smaller 
than  our  English  Cherrie,  nothing  neare  so  good  if 
they  be  not  fully  ripe,  they  so  furre  the  mouth  that 
the  tongue  will  cleave  to  the  roofe,  and  the  throate 
wax  hoarse  with  swallowing  those  red  Bullies  (as 
I  may  call  them)  being  little  better  in  taste.  Eng- 
lish ordering  may  bring  them  to  be  an  English 
cherrie,  but  yet  they  are  as  wilde  as  the  Indians. 
The  Plummes  of  the  Countrey  be  better  for  Plumbs 
than  the  Cherries  be  for  Cherries ;  they  be  blacke 
and  yellow,  about  the  bignesse  of  a  Damson,  of  a 
reasonable  good  taste." 

Wood's  cherry  is  instantly  recognized  as  the  choke 
cherry,  and  it  is  probable  that  this  is  the  species 
which  the  other  writers  had  in  mind,  although  it  is 
possible  that  the  sand  cherry  or  even  the  beach  plum 
may  have  attracted  their  attention  and  have  been  rec- 
ognized as  cherries.  Their  plum  is  undoubtedly  the 
common  native  wild  plum,  which  has  a  wide  range 
from  New  England  westward  and  southward.  It  is  not 
plain,  however,  what  the  white  plum  of  Winslow  may 
have  been.  Alexander  Young,  in  his  "Chronicles  of 
the  Pilgrim  Fathers,"  says  that  in  the  original  edi- 
tion of  Winslow,  published  in  London  in  1622,  the 
word  "white"  occurred  as  "with,"  which  he  calls  "an 
error  of  the  press;"  but  inasmuch  as  there  is  no  white 


172        THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FEUITS 

plum,  it  is  possible  that  the  original  printing  is  cor- 
rect, although  if  "white"  be  omitted,  there  remain  only 
two  of  the  "three  sorts"  of  plums, —  the  black  and  the 
red.  If  white  was  intended,  it  is  probable  that  the 
writer  had  in  mind  fruits  which  are  light -colored  from 
the  presence  of  a  heavy  "bloom."  But  it  is  evident  that 
these  running  observations  must  not  be  translated  too 
exactly.  It  is  enough  to  know  that  the  settlers  found 
plums  of  eatable  quality. 

Captain  John  Smith  was  attracted  by  the  wild 
plums  when  he  first  went  to  Virginia.  "Plumbs  there 
are  of  3  sorts,"  he  says.  "The  red  and  white  are  like 
our  hedge  plumbs  :  but  the  other,  which  they  call 
Putchamins,  grow  as  high  as  a  Palmeta.  The  fruit  is 
like  a  medler ;  it  is  first  greene,  then  yellow,  and  red 
when  it  is  ripe :  if  it  be  not  ripe  it  will  drawe  a 
mans  mouth  awrie  with  much  torment ;  but  when  it 
is  ripe,  it  is  as  delicious  as  an  Apricock."  The  reader 
will  instantly  recognize  this  last  plum  as  the  persim- 
mon ;  and  the  word  "  putchamin"  is  no  doubt  a  pho- 
netic rendering  of  the  Indian  word  from  which  the 
word  persimmon  is  derived.  Strachey,  writing  some 
four  or  five  years  later  (that  is,  sometime  from  1610 
to  1612),  also  speaks  of  a  "plomb  which  they  call 
pessemmins,"  and  he  likens  it  to  a  medlar  and  an 
apricot,  no  doubt  in  imitation  of  Smith.  Strachey 
also  says  :  "They  have  cherries,  much  like  a  dam- 
oizin,  but  for  their  tast  and  cullour  we  called  them 
cherries ;  and  a  plomb  there  is,  somewhat  fairer  than 
a  cherrie,  of  the  same  relish,  then  which  "are  seldom e 
a  better  eaten."  I  suppose  that  the  cherry  to  which 
Strachey  refers  is  the  Chickasaw  plum,  which  gro^vs 
abundantly  in  that  region,  and  which  is  even  now 


RANGE  OF  THE  NATIVE  PLUMS        173 

called  "mountain  cherry"  in  parts  of  Maryland  and 
Virginia.  John  Smith's  language  is  very  similar,  and 
it  is  probably  the  source  of  Strachey's  information: 
"They  have  cherries,  and  those  are  much  like  a  Dam- 
sen  ;  but  for  their  tastes  and  colour,  we  called  them 
Cherries."  The  other  plum  mentioned  by  Strachey  is 
probably  a  form  of  Prunus  Americana,  or  possibly 
some  large -fruited  form  of  the  Chickasaw  plum. 

The  Native  Plums  in  General 

It  is  not  my  purpose  to  make  an  inquiry  into  the 
early  records  of  wild  plums,  but  merely  to  mention 
the  fact  that  the  colonists  were  attracted  by  the  fruit, 
and  that  they  seemed  to  think  it  worthy  of  improve- 
ment. This  improvement  did  not  develop,  however, 
until  the  present  century,  and  even  then  it  was  not 
the  outcome  of  any  direct  effort  at  a  definite  object, 
but  only  the  aggregate  result  of  bringing  together 
such  wild  or  chance  varieties  as  attracted  the  attention 
of  lovers  of  fruit.  It  is  interesting  to  notice,  also, 
that  these  varieties  originated  or  were  discovered  in 
parts  of  the  country  which  were  being  newly  settled. 
The  great  territory  of  New  England,  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania and  Michigan  has  never  produced  a  variety  of 
native  plums  which  has  been  named  and  attained 
to  any  prominence.  This  is  partly  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  wild  plums  of  this  great  region,  while  of  the 
same  species  as  those  in  the  tipper  Mississippi  valley, 
are  less  prolific  of  large-fruited  forms  than  those 
farther  west.  It  is  chiefly  due,  however,  to  the  cir- 
cumstance that  the  European  plum  thrives  admira- 
bly in  this  geographical  region,  and  there  was,  there- 


174         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

fore,  little  need  of  giving  any  attention  to  the  inferior 
natives  ;  and  at  the  present  time  the  fruit-growers 
of  the  East  care  little  for  and  know  less  of  these 
native  fruits.  The  European  plums  thrive  so  well 
in  these  states  and  adjacent  territory  that  they  have 
become  spontaneous  along  roadsides  and  in  copses  in 
many  places,  where  they  bear  an  annual  abundance 
of  little  fruits  which  are  commonly  called  damsons, 
and  which  are  gathered  for  use  in  making  conserves. 
Even  as  early  as  1663,  John  Josselyn  writes  as 
follows  of  some  of  the  fruits  of  New  England : 
"The  Quinces,  Cherries,  Damsons,  set  the  Dames 
a  work,  Marmalad  and  preserved  Damsons  is  to  be 
met  with  in  every  house.  It  was  not  long  before 
I  left  the  Countrey  that  I  made  Cherry  wine,  and 
so  may  others,  for  there  are  good  store  of  them  both 
red  and  black." 

In  Virginia  and  southward,  however,  the  European 
plum  does  not  thrive  so  well,  and  the  inhabitants  of 
those  regions,  previous  to  the  present  generation,  have 
not  been  noted  for  their  attention  to  horticultural 
industries.  The  result  has  been  that  no  plum  indus- 
try has  developed  in  the  South  until  very  recently. 
Yet  the  wild  plums  have  long  been  gathered  and 
employed  in  domestic  uses,  as,  indeed,  they  have  in 
thinly  settled  portions  of  Ontario  and  other  parts  of 
the  northwestern  territory.  But  it  appears  to  have 
been  chiefly  in  the  newly  settled  regions,  as  I  have 
said,  that  these  large -fruited  native  plums  have  been 
sorted  out  and  named.  The  settlers  often  suffered  for 
lack  of  fruit,  and  were,  therefore,  eager  to  seize  upon 
the  native  productions.  Sometimes  these  plums  were 
carried  into  the  new  country  by  the  emigrants,  and 


THE    FIRST    NAMED    VARIETY  175 

there  obtained  their  first  notoriety.  Thus,  some  forty 
or  fifty  years  ago,  a  native  plum  was  taken  from  Ala- 
bama to  Texas,  and  it  is  now  introduced  from  Texas 
under  the  name  of  Saffold.  The  most  interesting 
instance  of  this  migration  and  subsequent  fame  is 
that  of  the  Miner  plum  ;  and  as  this  appears  to  have 
been  the  first  native  plum  to  have  received  a  name,  it 
may  well  serve  to  introduce  our  narrative. 

The  seed  which  produced  the  Miner  plum  was 
planted  in  1814,  in  Knox  county,  Tennessee,  by  Wil- 
liam Dodd,  an  officer  under  General  Jackson.  Dodd 
appears  to  have  had  two  batches  of  seed,  one  which 
he  gathered  the  year  previous  upon  Talaposa  creek, 
and  the  other  given  him  by  an  Indian  chief.  It  is 
not  clear  from  which  lot  this  plum  sprung.  The 
plum  gained  some  notice  when  it  came  into  bearing, 
and  was  known  as  Old  Hickory  and  General  Jack- 
son. In  1823  or  1824  Dodd  moved  to  Illinois  and 
settled  near  Springfield,  taking  sprouts  of  this  plum 
with  him.  The  plums  soon  attracted  attention  among 
Dodd's  neighbors,  and  the  variety  was  called  in  its 
new  home  William  Dodd  and  Chickasaw  Chief.  The 
year  following  William  Dodd's  removal  to  Illinois,  his 
brother  moved  to  Galena,  Illinois,  and  took  some  of 
the  plums.  About  Galena  the  plum  became  known  as 
the  Hinckley.  I  do  not  know  how  the  name  Miner 
came  to  be  applied  to  it,  but  Down  ing's  reference  to 
Mr.  Miner  of  Pennsylvania— who  probably  grew  and 
disseminated  it — undoubtedly  explains  it.  It  is  said 
by  D.  B.  Wier  that  the  late  Hon.  James  G.  Soulard, 
of  Galena,  introduced  this  plum  to  general  cultivation. 
As  the  variety  became  disseminated,  it  received  new 
or  local  names.  Downing  gives  Hinckley,  Isabel, 


176         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE     FRUITS 

Gillett,  Townsend  and  Robinson  as  synonyms  of  it. 
The  Robinson  now  known  is  a  very  different  fruit. 
The  Miner  is  one  of  the  best  and  most  popular  of  the 
native  plums.  The  fruit  is  large,  round  or  roundish- 
oblong,  dull  red,  skin  rather  thick;  stone  cling,  short 
and  broad,  smooth  or  very  nearly  so,  very  short- 
pointed,  rather  sharp  on  the  front  edge  ;  leaves  large 
and  heavy,  usually  inclined  to  be  obovate,  rather  long- 
pointed,  the  stalks  glandular.  It  is  one  of  the  latest 
ripening  of  all  ihe  plums  of  its  class. 

The  second  important  event  in  the  evolution  of 
the  native  plums  is  the  origination  of  the  Wild 
Goose.  On  account  of  its  productiveness,  earliness, 
beauty,  good  shipping  qualities,  and  its  early  intro- 
duction, this  is  the  most  popular  of  the  native  plums. 
It  was  first  brought  to  notice  by  James  Harvey,  of 
Columbia,  Tennessee.  Some  time  before  1850,  a  man 
shot  a  wild  goose  near  Columbia,  and  on  the  spot 
where  the  carcass  was  thrown  this  plum  came  up  the 
following  spring.  It  was  introduced  about  1850  by 
the  late  J.  S.  Downer,  Fairview,  Kentucky.  The 
fruit  is  large,  round-oblong,  light  red,  skin  thin,  the 
flesh  thin  and  juicy ;  cling,  stone  long  and  narrow, 
prolonged  above  into  a  sharp  point  and  below  into  a 
narrow  base,  finely  pitted;  leaves  oblong -lanceolate, 
peach -like,  not  prominently  pointed,  the  margins  finely 
and  evenly  serrate.  Early,  of  poor  quality,  but  because 
of  its  many  striking  features  it  is  widely  grown. 

Another  important  event  was  the  introduction  of 
the  Robinson.  This  is  a  seedling  grown  by  a  Mr. 
Pickett,  of  Putnam  county,  Indiana,  from  a  seedling 
brought  with  him  from  North  Carolina  about  fifty 
years  ago,  and  almost  every  season  (since  large 


TYPICAL    VARIETIES  177 

enough)  it  has  borne  abundant  crops.  The  variety 
was  neglected,  and  never  brought  to  the  notice  of 
the  public  till  1879,  when  Dr.  J.  H.  Robinson  (of 
the  same  township)  read  a  paper  on  Chickasaw  plums 
before  the  Indiana  Horticultural  Society,  and  gave  a 
very  flattering  description  of  this  plum.  He  had 
been  watching  it  since  1872,  and  had  had  two  good 
crops  on  his  own  trees,  which  bore  two  bushels  to  the 
tree  five  years  after  planting.  It  was  named  by  the 
Putnam  County  Horticultural  Society  in  honor  of  Dr. 
Robinson.  Albertsou  &  Hobbs,  nurserymen,  of  Bridge- 
port, Indiana,  introduced  the  variety  in  the  fall  of 
1884  and  spring  of  1885. 

Since  1860,  many  plums  of  the  type  of  these  three 
have  come  into  notice  in  the  region  south  of  the  Ohio 
and  east  of  Kansas.  Some  of  the  leading  varieties 
are  Wayland,  which  came  up  in  a  plum  thicket  in 
the  garden  of  Professor  H.  B.  Wayland,  Cadiz,  Ken- 
tucky, and  which  was  introduced  to  the  public  by 
Downer  &  Bro.,  Fairview,  Kentucky,  about  1876; 
Missouri  Apricot  (or  Honey  Drop),  a  plum  found 
wild  in  Missouri  and  introduced  by  Stark  Bros., 
nurserymen,  of  Louisiana,  Missouri,  in  1886 ;  More- 
man,  a  Kentucky  plum,  introduced  by  W.  F.  Heikes 
in  1881  ;  Golden  Beauty,  found  wild  in  Texas,  and 
introduced  by  George  Onderdouk  in  1874 ;  Potta- 
wattamie,  found  in  Tennessee,  but  taken  west  and 
first  prominently  introduced  by  J.  B.  Rice,  Council 
Bluffs,  Iowa,  in  1875;  Newman  (Fig.  23),  found  in 
Kentucky,  and  introduced  by  W.  F.  Heikes. 

While  these  events  were  transpiring  in  the  South, 
another  type  of  native  plums  was  coining  into  promi- 
nence in  the  upper  Mississippi  valley.  In  this  region 


' 


TYPICAL    VARIETIES  179 

the  plums  were  large  and  thick-skinned,  often  flat- 
tened, and  bearing  a  distinct  suture  or  groove,  the 
flesh  firm  and  meaty,  and  the  stone  usually  large  and 
often  very  flat.  The  tree,  too,  is  of  a  different 
type,  being  a  stiff  grower,  with  dull  shoots  and  large, 
heavy,  dull,  more  or  less  obovate  and  coarsely  toothed 
leaves,  while  those  in  the  South  are  slender, 
twiggy  growers,  with  bright  or  light -colored  shoots, 
and  more  slender  and  often  peach -like,  closely  toothed 
leaves.  The  settlers  in  Wisconsin,  northern  Illinois, 
Minnesota  and  Iowa  found  this  type  of  plum  abun- 
dant in  the  timber  belts.  Very  often  trees  were  found 
bearing  fruit  of  unusual  size  and  excellence.  Such 
trees  were  removed  to  gardens,  or  seeds  of  them  were 
sown,  and  very  soon  a  new  race  of  plums  had  come 
into  cultivation. 

The  Wolf  was  one  of  the  first  of  these  varieties 
to  be  named.  This  originated  on  the  farm  of  D.  B. 
Wolf,  Wapello  county,  Iowa,  about  forty  years  ago, 
from  pits  said  to  have  been  gathered  from  wild  trees. 

The  Rollingstone  is  one  of  the  prominent  varieties 
of  this  type.  It  was  found  nearly  forty  years  ago 
on  the  bank  of  the  Rollingstone  Creek,  Winona 
county,  Minnesota,  by  O.  M.  Lord,  and  he  intro- 
duced it  to  public  notice  about  fifteen  years  ago. 
The  fruit  of  the  Rollingstone  is  very  large  (often  1% 
inches  each  in  diameter),  round,  flattened  and  truncate 
at  the  ends,  mottled  and  spotted  pink -purple,  skin  very 
thick  ;  flesh  firm,  sweet  and  excellent ;  semi-cling, 
stone  nearly  circular,  rather  flat,  sharp  on  the  back 
edge,  nearly  smooth  ;  leaves  large  and  firm. 

The  Quaker  was  found  wild  by  Joseph  Bundy,  of 
Springville,  Linn  county,  Iowa.  It  was  disseminated 


180 


THE     EVOLUTION     OP    OUR    NATIVE     FRUITS 


about  1862  by  H.  C.  Raymond,  Council  Bluffs,  and 
by  him  named  Quaker,  in  compliment  to  Mr.  Bundy, 
who  is  a  Quaker.  It  is  a  very  large  purple-red  plum, 
with  very  firm  and  sweet  flesh. 

De  Soto  is  one  of   the   most  popular  plums  in  the 
Northwest.      It   was    found    wild    on    the    Mississippi 


Fig.  24.    Forest  Garden    plum.    Natura 


at  De  Soto,  Wisconsin,  and  generally  introduced  by 
Elisha  Hale,  Lansing,  Iowa,  in  1863  or  1864. 

Forest  Garden  (Fig.  24),  another  excellent  kind, 
was  taken  from  the  woods  at  Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa,  by 
Thomas  Hare,  and  introduced  by  H.  C.  Raymond,  of  the 
Forest  Garden  Nurseries,  Council  Bluffs,  about  1862. 

Cheney  was  found  in  Mormon  Ravine,  a  few  miles 


TYPICAL    VAR1ET1KS  181 

below  La  Crosse,  Wisconsin,  some  years  ago,  and 
introduced  by  E.  Markley,  of  La  Crosse. 

The  Weaver,  a  loading  native  plum,  was  found 
wild  near  Palo,  Iowa,  by  Mr.  Weaver;  introduced  by 
Eimis  &  Patten  in  1875.  O.  M.  Lord  tells  me  that 
plums  indistinguishable  from  the  Weaver  are  wild 
in  profusion  on  the  St.  Peter  or  Minnesota  River. 

In  this  way,  about  a  hundred  choice  forms  of  the 
native  plum  of  the  Northwest  have  been  gathered  and 
sorted  and  given  names  ;  and  they  are  so  much  more 
hardy  and  reliable  in  that  region  than  the  European 
type  of  plum  that  they  will  probably  form  the  chief 
foundation  from  which  the  future  orchard  plums  of 
the  northern  prairie  states  will  spring.  They  are 
already  grown  to  an  important  commercial  extent. 

The    Americana    Group   of  Plums 

It  will  be  necessary,  before  proceeding  further 
with  the  historical  data,  to  discuss  the  natural  species 
from  which  the  plums  that  we  have  mentioned  have 
come.  The  layman  may  not  know  that  the  genus 
Prunus,  to  which  the  plums  and  cherries  belong,  is 
one  of  the  hard  knots  to  botanists.  That  is,  the 
plants  are  widely  variable,  and  there  are  few  pro- 
nounced or  constant  marks  to  distinguish  one  type 
of  variation  from  another.  The  numerous  forms 
grade  into  each  other  so  imperceptibly  and  inextri- 
cably that  the  genus  cannot  be  readily  broken  up  into 
species.  But  these  genera  which  are  the  despair  of 
the  systematic  botanist  are  the  inspiration  of  the  evo- 
lutionist. In  them  the  philosopher  thinks  that  he 
can  trace  the  influences  of  soil  and  climate  and  the 


182  THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

other  environments  which  cause  plants  to  assume 
new  forms.  If,  therefore,  we  cannot  delimit  the 
species  of  Prunus  to  our  satisfaction,  we  shall,  never- 
theless, find  them  to  be  a  most  suggestive  study  when 
we  attempt  to  trace  the  evolution  of  our  native  fruits. 
The  wild  plum  of  the  North  is  known  to  botanists 
as  Prunus  Americana  (Fig.  25).  It  was  first  de- 
scribed by  Humphrey  Marshall  in  his  "Arbustxum 
Americanum,"  in  1785.  Marshall's  complete  account 
is  as  follows  : 

"Prunus  Americana.  Large  Yellow  Sweet  Plumb. 
This  generally  rises  to  the  height  of  12  or  15  feet, 
spreading  into  many  stiif  branches.  The  leaves  are 
oblong,  oval,  acute  pointed,  sharply  sawed  on  their 
edges  and  much  veined.  The  flowers  generally  come 
out  very  thick  round  the  branches,  often  upon  thick 
short  spurs ;  and  are  succeeded  by  large  oval  fruit 
with  a  sweet  succulent  pulp.  We  have  a  great  variety 
of  these,  growing  naturally  in  a  good  moist  soil,  with 
reddish  and  yellowish  fruit,  but  differing  much  in 
size,  taste  and  consistence." 

The  species  has  a  wide  range.  It  grows  in  thickets 
and  woods  from  Newfoundland  to  Colorado,  Florida 
and  Texas,  and  northern  Mexico.  It  is  commonly  a 
small  low-headed  tree,  or  sometimes  only  a  large  bush, 
making  a  thick  and  usually  thorny  top.  It  bears  a 
firm,  meaty,  usually  compressed,  dull -colored  late 
fruit,  with  thick  and  usually  very  tough,  glaucous 
skin,  and  large  more  or  less  flattened  stone,  which  is 
often  nearly  or  quite  free ;  and  the  leaves  are  large 
obovate,  thick,  veiny,  jagged  and  dull.  The  fruits  of 
wild  forms  of  Prunus  Americana  vary  widely  in  sea- 
son, size,  shape,  flavor,  and  character  of  stone.  Trees 


Fig.  2o.     Prunus  Americana.     Half  size. 


184         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR'  NATIVE     FEUITS 

in  the  same  clump  often  vary  two  weeks  iii  season  of 
ripening  of  fruit,  which  may  vary  from  dull,  deep  red 
to  yellow,  and  from  the  size  of  a  small  cherry  to  that 
of  a  common  garden  plum.  It  should  be  said,  how- 
ever, that  there  is  no  true  clear  yellow  fruit  in  this 
species.  The  yellow  of  P.  Americana  is  always  a 
more  or  less  ill -denned  under- color,  over  which  are 
laid  blotches  of  red.  The  fruits  are  commonly  marked 
with  a  distinct  suture.  All  the  varieties  have  a  light 
purple  bloom.  The  Texan  form  of  Primus  Americana, 
known  locally  as  the  Hog  plum,  appears  to  differ  some- 
what from  the  northern  forms,  but  there  seems  to  be  no 
reason  to  regard  it  as  a  distinct  species.  The  Prunus 
Texana  of  Scheele  is  Prunus  Americana,  as  shown  by 
an  authentic  specimen  in  the  Engelrnann  herbarium  at 
St.  Louis.  The  Texan  type  is  not  in  general  culti- 
vation, however,  and  need  not  be  further  discussed 
here.  It  is  in  the  northern  prairie  states,  as  I  have 
said,  that  this  species  reaches  its  greatest  excellence 
in  fruit-bearing.  All  the  horticultural  varieties  of 
merit,  so  far  as  I  know,  have  originated  in  northern 
Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  South  Dakota, 
Nebraska  and  Kansas,  with  one  or  two  unimportant 
exceptions  in  Texas. 

Some  botanists  suppose  that  this  northern  plum 
really  comprises  more  than  one  natural  species.  Pro- 
fessor Sargent  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  Prunus 
nigra  of  Aiton  should  be  revived  to  designate  those 
forms  which  are  characterized  by  very  flat  and  smooth 
stones,  very  broad  leaves,  glandular  leaf -stalks  and 
calyx  lobes,  and  large  flowers  ;  and  he  inserts  a  plate 
and  description  of  what  he  conceives  to  be  this 
species  in  his  noble  "Silva  of  North  America."  My 


PRUNUS    NIGRA  185 

friend,  Professor  Charles  A.  Davis,  of  Michigan,  finds 
two  forms,  which  he  distinguishes  as  follows  :  "The 
large-flowered  form  is  the  more  common,  and  blooms 
about  a  week  or  even  ten  days  before  the  other,  and 
usually  before  the  leaves  begin  to  appear.  The  small- 
flowered  form  I  have  never  found  until  this  spring, 
when  I  came  upon  a  clump  of  it  in  full  bloom,  and  at 
once  became  interested  in  it  because  of  its  decided  dif- 
ferences from  the  other  and  common  form.  The  trees 
were  larger,  more  spreading,  and  with  a  much  rougher 
bark  than  the  large -flowered  form;  and  a  number  of 
the  trees  bore  flowers  with  a  decidedly  yellowish  tint, 
which  was  very  noticeable  from  a  short  distance.  The 
fruit  was  late,  maturing  the  middle  of  September,  and 
was  reddish,  almost  purple  in  very  ripe  specimens,  with 
a  whitish  bloom,  small  and  rather  palatable." 

Aiton  described  his  Primus  nigra  in  "Hortus 
Kewensis,"  in  1789,  from  a  tree  growing  in  England. 
He  did  not  know  Marshall's  previous  description.  In 
1808,  John  Sims  figured  what  he  supposed  to  be  the 
same  plant  in  the  "Botanical  Magazine."  There  is 
little  in  either  of  these  descriptions  which  can  be  con- 
strued as  delimiting  the  plant  from  Marshall's  Primus 
Americana.  Perhaps  the  only  designative  characters 
are  the  "petiolis  glandulosis,"  and  the  "glandular- 
toothed"  calyx  segments.*  Six  years  ago,  in  my  bul- 

*Aiton  described  Prunus  nigra  as  follows  (Hort.  Kew.  ii.  165,  1789):— 
14.  P.  umbellis  sessilibus  solitariis  paucifloris,  foliis  deciduis  ovatis  acumiuatis, 
petiolis  biglandulosis. 

Black  Cherry  Tree. 
Nat.  of  Canada. 

Introd.  1773,  by  Messrs.  Kennedy  and  Lee. 
Fl.  April  and  May. 

I  have  seen  Alton's  specimen  in  the  Natural  History  Museum,  at  South 
Kensington.  It  comprises  a  spray  of  foliage  and  a  flowering  branch.  It  is 
apparently  the  same  plant  which  contemporaneous  botanists  are  calling  Prunvt 
nigra. 


186         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE     FRUITS 

letin  upon  "The  Cultivated  Native  Plums  and  Cher- 
ries," I  was  unable  to  find  any  warrant  for  accepting 
two  species  of  these  northern  plums,  although  I  had 
made  a  studious  effort  to  do  so  for  several  years.  In 
the  meantime  I  have  studied  the  plants  diligently  in 
the  wild  and  under  cultivation,  and  have  now  gone 
over  much  herbarium  material  anew,  but  I  have  been 
utterly  unable  to  find  characters  upon  which  to  make 
two  species.  The  glandular  character  of  the  calyx- 
lobes  may  be  present  or  absent  in  the  same  horticul- 
tural variety  when  grown  in  different  places,  and  it 
is  not  associated  with  large  or  early  flowers,  with 
biglandular  leaf -stalks  or  with  large  and  flat  stones 
in  the  fruit.  The  presence  or  absence  of  two  glands 
upon  the  leaf -stalk  is  of  no  classificatory  importance. 
The  glands  are  frequently  present  and  absent  on  con- 
tiguous leaves  on  the  same  tree.  In  the  shape  of  the 
stones  there  is  the  most  insensible  gradation  from  the 
small  turgid  stone,  which  is  assumed  to  be  designative 
of  Prunus  Americana,  to  the  great  flat  stone  of  Primus 
nigra.  The  accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  26)  shows 
this  admirably.  Nos.  10,  11,  12,  13,  14  are  stones  of 
named  varieties  which  Professor  Sargent  considers  to 
belong  to  Prunus  nigra.  All  the  others  are  forms  of 
typical  Prunus  Americana.  One  of  the  flattest  stones 
in  the  lot  is  No.  2,  which  came  from  a  tree  in  cen- 
tral New  York  which  has  most  pronounced  characters 
of  the  extreme  and  typical  Americana  form.  The 
inventory  of  these  stones  is  as  follows  : 

No.  1,  Prunus  Americana  from  Colorado  ;  2,  same 
from  central  New  York  (stone  flat,  from  a  small  very 
early,  red  fruit);  3,  same  from  Wisconsin  (stone  very 
turgid);  4,  same  from  central  Michigan  (small -flow- 


VARIATIONS    IN    PLUM    PITS 


187 


Fig.  26.    Stones  of  Prunus  Americana.    Natural  size. 


ered,  typical  Americana  form,  but  stone  as  flat  and 
as  strongly  edged  as  in  the  nigra  form);  5,  Deep 
Creek,  grown  in  Maryland;  6,  Louisa,  grown  in 
Maryland ;  7,  De  Soto,  grown  in  Maryland ;  8,  De 
Soto,  grown  in  Iowa;  9,  Forest  Garden,  grown  in 
New  York;  10,  Purple  Yosemite  (Prunus  nigra}, 
grown  in  Maryland;  11,  Quaker  (P.  niyra),  grown 


188         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

in  Maryland;  12,  Weaver  (P.  nigra),  grown  in  Mary- 
land ;  13,  Weaver,  grown  in  Minnesota ;  14,  Weaver, 
grown  in  Texas. 

To  give  the  reader  an  opportunity  to  compare  this 
interesting  variation  in  plum  stones  with  like  varia- 
tion in  another  and  foreign  species,  I  insert  a  picture 
(Fig.  27)  of  stones  of  the  myrobalan  plum  (Primus 
cerasifera)  selected  from  an  imported  commercial 
sample.  (See  discussion  beginning  on  page  208.) 

The  early  flowering  of  some  trees  of  this  Primus 
Americana  stock  is  a  most  conspicuous  character,  but 
I  do  not  see  that  it  should  excite  any  more  interest 
than  the  very  early  maturing  of  fruit  on  some  trees  ; 
nor  do  I  see  that  an  occasional  large -flowered  form 
is  any  more  worthy  of  being  accorded  specific  rank 
than  a  large -fruited  form.  These  are  all  probably 
individual  variations,  and  likely  have  no  close  rela- 
tion to  the  genetic  history  of  the  species. 

I  am  obliged,  therefore,  to  unite  Prunus  nigra 
with  P.  Americana.  This  I  regret  the  more  because 
it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  there  are  two  or  more  well 
marked  wild  varieties  passing  as  P.  Americana,  and 
growing  together  in  the  East.  One  type  is  a  twiggj', 
virgate  grower,  with  large  and  mostly  earlier  flowers  ; 
another  is  a  stout  and  stiff  grower,  with  small  flowers. 
So  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  determine,  the  fruits 
and  stones  of  these  two  forms,  save  possibly  in  time 
of  ripening,  are  not  characteristically  distinct.  These 
forms  are  certainly  common  in  central  New  York  and 
in  Michigan.  It  is  a  question,  however,  if  the  habit 
of  growth  is  not  largely  determined  by  the  soil,  posi- 
tion, or  other  circumstances  in  which  the  trees  grow. 
At  all  events,  these  differences  are  not  more  marked 


PRUNUS    NIGRA  189 

than  similar  varieties  in  elms,  mulberries  or  haw- 
thorns, and  which  no  one  associates  with  specific 
differences.  I  am  not  yet  prepared  to  affirm  that 
the  wild  plum  of  the  North  contains  but  a  single 
species,  but  I  am  convinced  that  no  botanist  has  yet 
been  able  to  draw  designative  characters  to  separate 
out  a  second  or  third  species. 

The  extreme  forms  of  this  Americana  plum  are 
so  well  marked,  however,  that  it  will  be  useful,  for 
purposes  of  study,  if  incidental  names  be  given  them. 
I  am,  therefore,  inclined  to  follow  Waugh*  in  calling 
this  northern  type  Primus  Americana  var.  nigra. 

It  should  be  said  that  beyond  the  Mississippi  there 
is  a  very  pubescent -leaved  form  of  Primus  Americana, 
which  is  known  to  botanists  as  the  variety  mollisj 
It  is  from  this  type  that  the  Wolf  plum  comes. 
There  is  also  a  form  of  this  with  flowers  as  com- 
pletely double  as  those  of  St.  Peter's  Wreath,  or 

*F.  A.  Waugh,  Bull.  53,  Vt.  Exp.  Sta.  58  (Aug.  1896):— 

P.  AMERICANA,  Marsh.  COMMON  WILD  PLUM.  The  type  distinguished  by 
entire  calyx  lobes,  which  are  pubescent  on  the  inner  surface  ;  stone  turgid  ; 
leaves  oval  or  slightly  obovate  ;  petioles  mostly  without  glands.  Tree  spreading, 
ragged,  thorny,  8-20  ft.  high  ;  flowers  large,  white,  on  slender  pedicels  ;  leaves 
very  coarsely  veined,  never  glossy  or  shining  ;  fruit  more  or  less  flattened  upon 
the  sides,  firm  and  meaty,  the  skin  tough  and  glaucous  and  never  glossy,  ripening 
through  yellow  to  red.  Occurs  wild  from  New  Jersey  and  New  York,  to  31  on- 
tana  and  Colorada.  It  varies  southward,  in  Texas  and  New  Mexico  represented 
mostly  by  the  variety  mollis. 

Var.  NIORA.  CANADA  PLUM.  RED  PLUM  (P.  nigra.  Ait ;  P.  Americana,  T.  & 
G. ;  and  6th  ed.  Gray's  Manual).  In  its  extreme  forms  easily  distinguished  by  the 
glandular-serrate  calyx  lobes,  glabrous  on  the  inner  surface  ;  compressed  stone  ; 
broadly  oblong-ovate  to  obovate  leaves  with  petioles  bearing  two  glands.  Flowers 
large,  white,  with  short,  thick  peduncles  conspicuously  marked  by  the  scars  left 
by  the  falling  of  the  bud  scales  ;  pedicels  dark  red,  slender,  glabrous  ;  calyx  tube 
broadly  obconic,  dark  red  on  the  outer  and  bright  red  on  the  inner  surface  ;  fruit 
oblong-oval,  orange-red  ;  stone  nearly  oval,  compressed.  Occurs  wild  from  New- 
foundland  west  to  Rainy  and  Assiniboine  rivers  in  Canada,  and  commonly  in  the 
New  England  states,  where  it  is  found  alona  roadsides  and  in  waste  places. 

tThis  is  Prunus  australis  of  Munson.    See  Waugh,  Hot.  Gaz.  xxvi.,  50. 


190         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

similar  spireas.  The  named  varieties  of  native  plums 
which,  it  seems  to  me,  can  be  confidently  referred 
to  Prunus  Americana  are  named  below.  There  are 
others  which  belong  to  this  species,  but  I  have  not 
had  an  opportunity  of  critically  examining  them: 

American  Eagle,  Beaty's  Choice,  Cheney,  Chip- 
peway,  Cottrell,  Deep  Creek,  De  Soto,  Forest  Garden, 
Gaylord,  Harrison's  Peach,  Hawkeye,  Illinois  Iron- 


Fig.  27.    Variation  in  stones  of  Myrobalan  plum.    Natural  size. 

clad,  Itaska,  Jessie,  Kickapoo,  Late  Rollingstone,  Le 
Due,  Little  Seedling  (of  Chas.  Luedloff),  Louisa, 
Luedloff 's  Green,  Luedloff 's  Red,  Maquoketa,  Min- 
netonka,  Mussey,  Newton  Egg,  Ocheeda,  Peffer's 
Premium,  Purple  Yosemite,  Quaker,  Rollingstone, 
Smith's  Red,  Speer,  Stoddart,  Wazata,  Weaver, 
Wier's  Large  Red,  Wyant,  Yellow  Sweet.  Of  the 
variety  mollis,  of  Prunus  Americana,  two  named  fruit 
varieties  are  well  marked,  the  Wolf  (or  Wolf  Free), 
and  the  Van  Buren. 


THE    CHICKASAW    PLUMS  191 

The    Chickasaw    Group 

It  now  remains  to  discuss  the  botanical  status  of 
the  southern  type  of  plums,  of  which  the  Newman, 
Pottawattamie,  Wild  Goose,  Miner  and  Way  land  are 
examples.  We  shall  find  that  greater  uncertainty 
and  confusion  attach  to  these  fruits  than  to  their 
congeners  of  the  North.  These  southern  fruits  are 
generally  known  as  the  Chickasaw  plums.  If  we 
examine  them  critically,  however,  we  shall  find  that 
they  fall  somewhat  readily  into  two  groups.  One  of 
these  groups  we  shall  call  the  true  Chickasaws  (Fig. 
28).  This  group  differs  from  other  plums  by  a  more 
slender,  spreading  and  zigzag  growth,  usually  smaller 
size  of  tree,  red  twigs,  by  smaller,  lanceolate  or 
oblong -lanceolate,  very  closely  serrate,  shining  leaves, 
which  are  conduplicate  or  trough -like  in  habit,  by 
early  small  flowers  which,  upon  old  wood,  are  densely 
clustered  on  the  spurs,  and  by  an  early  red  (rarely 
yellow)  and  more  or  less  spotted  translucent  fruit, 
the  flesh  of  which  is  soft,  juicy,  and  more  or  less 
stringy,  and  very  tightly  adherent  to  the  small,  broad, 
roughish  stone. 

This  species,  like  Prunus  Americana,  was  founded 
by  Humphrey  Marshall  in  1785.  His  full  descrip- 
tion is  as  follows:  "Prunus  angustifolia.  Chickasaw 
Plumb.  This  is  scarcely  of  so  large  a  growth  as 
the  former  [P.  Americana],  but  rising  with  a  stiff, 
shrubby  stalk,  dividing  into  many  branches,  which 
are  garnished  with  smooth  lance -shaped  leaves,  much 
smaller  and  narrower  than  the  first  kind  [P.  Ameri- 
cana] ,  a  little  waved  on  their  edges,  marked  with 
very  fine,  slight,  coloured  serratures,  and  of  an  equal, 


CHICKASAW    PLUMS  193 

shining  green  colour,  on  both  sides.  The  blossoms 
generally  come  out  very  thick,  and  are  succeeded 
by  oval,  or  often  somewhat  egg-shaped  fruit,  with 
a  very  thin  skin,  and  soft,  sweet  pulp.  There  are 
varieties  of  this  with  yellow  and  crimson  coloured 
fruit.  These  being  natives  of  the  Southern  states, 
are  somewhat  impatient  of  much  cold."  It  was  later 
described  by  Michaux  as  Primus  Chicasa*  It  is  also 
undoubtedly  the  plant  intended  by  Rafmesque,  when 
he  described  Prunus  stenopliyllus  in  his  "Florula 
Ludoviciana,"  in  1817.  In  a  wild  state  the  little  trees 
or  bushes  are  thorny,  and  the  thorns  persist  in  some 
of  the  cultivated  varieties.  It  grows  wild,  often  in 
dense  thickets,  from  southern  Delaware  to  Florida, 
and  westward  to  Kansas  and  Texas.  It  is  commonly 
stated  in  the  books  that  the  Chickasaw  plum  is  not 
native  to  the  Atlantic  states,  and  some  suppose  that 
it  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  from 
countries  to  the  south  of  us.  I  have  been  unable 
to  find  sufficient  reasons  for  these  opinions,  and  I 
believe  that  the  species  is  native  to  the  Southeastern 
states.  In  Maryland,  as  I  have  seen  it,  it  behaves 
like  an  indigenous  plant,  and  the  people  regard  it 
as  a  true  native.  The  small,  acerb  fruit  of  the 
thorny  and  scraggly  wild  bushes  is  known  in  Mary- 
land as  "mountain  cherry." 

One  of   the  first   persons  to   call   attention   to   the 
horticultural     possibilities     of     the     Chickasaw    plum 

*The  specimens  in  Michaux's  herbarium,  at  Paris,  are  Prunus  hortulana,  not 
the  plant  we  have  taken  to  be  P.  angustifolia ;  but  they  are  marked  with  an 
interrogation  point,  and  they  may  not  be  the  plant  which  he  meant  to  designate. 
His  Prunus  hyemalis  is  P.  Americana  ;  his  P.  tphaerocarpa  is  P.  maritima. 
Of  his  Cerasus  borealis  there  are  two  things  on  the  sheet,  but  they  are  both  forms 
of  P.  hortulana. 


194         THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

was  William  N.  White,  of  Athens,  Georgia.  In  the 
"Horticulturist"  for  1852,  he  describes  the  tree  and 
fruit, — the  latter  "either  bright  red  or  yellow" — and 
speaks  of  one  variety  which  ripens  nearly  a  month 
later  than  the  ordinary  forms,  the  fruit  being  "nearly 
free  from  astringency"  and  "about  the  size  of  Prince's 
Yellow  Gage."  In  the  original  edition  of  his  "Gar- 
dening for  the  South,"  1856,  Mr.  White  also  mentions 
the  Chickasaw  plum,  and  adds:  "Doubtless  many 
excellent  native  varieties  will  be  originated  from  this 
hardy  native  fruit.  Some  are  now  found  almost 
entirely  free  from  astringency.  This  plum  seems 
free  from  curculio,  and  never  fails  of  a  crop." 

The  varieties  which  seem  to  be  the  most  unmis- 
takably true  Chickasaws,  among  those  which  I  have 
studied,  are  the  following : 

African,  Arkansas  Lombard,  Caddo  Chief,  Coletta, 
Early  Red,  El  Paso,  Hoffman,  Jennie  Lucus,  Lone 
Star,  Newman  (Figs.  23,  28),  Ogeechee,  Pottawatta- 
mie,  Robinson,  Schley's  Large  Red,  Transparent  or 
Yellow  Transparent. 

The    Hortulana    Group 

The  second  group  of  these  southern  plums  is 
probably  the  most  important  type  of  native  plums 
now  in  cultivation.  It  includes  varieties  character- 
ized by  strong,  wide  -  spreading  growth,  and  mostly 
smooth  twigs ;  a  firm,  juicy,  bright -colored,  thin- 
skinned  fruit,  which  is  never  flattened ;  a  clinging, 
turgid,  comparatively  small,  rough  stone,  which  is 
sometimes  prolonged  at  the  ends,  but  is  never  con- 
spicuously wing -margined,  and  by  comparatively  thin 


THE     HORTULANA     PLUMS  195 

and  firm,  shining,  smooth,  flat,  more  or  less  peach- 
like,  ovate-lanceolate  or  ovate,  long-pointed  leaves, 
which  are  mostly  closely  and  obtusely  glandular -ser- 
rate, and  the  stalks  of  which  are  usually  glandular. 
In  the  wild  state,  it  appears  to  follow  the  Mississippi 
river  from  northern  Illinois  to  Arkansas,  in  its  mid- 
dle region  ranging  as  far  east  as  eastern  Kentucky 
and  Tennessee,  and  possibly  to  Maryland,  and  in 
the  southwest  spreading  over  Texas.  It  is  probable 
that  the  large  red  plums  of  which  Humphrey 
Marshall  had  heard,  over  a  century  ago,  as  grow- 
ing upon  the  Mississippi,  and  which  he  called 
Prunus  Mississippi,  were  of  this  hortulana  group. 
Marshall's  complete  description  of  this  plum  is  as 
follows:  "Prunus  Mississippi.  Crimson  Plumb.  This 
grows  naturally  upon  the  Mississippi,  and  is  of 
larger  size  than  most  of  the  other  kinds.  The 
fruit  are  crimson  coloured,  and  somewhat  acid." 
(Arbustrum  Americanum,  112.) 

To  this  group  belong  the  Wild  Goose,  Miner, 
and  Way  land,  and  their  kin.  It  had  not  been 
recognized  and  delimited  by  botanists  as  distinct 
from  other  tribes  of  plums,  and  six  years  ago, 
when  attempting  a  monograph  of  the  cultivated 
native  plums,  I  proposed  the  species  Prunus  hortu- 
lana to  designate  the  group.  The  name  hortulana 
was  chosen  to  record  the  fact  that  these  interesting 
plums  were  first  studied  by  horticulturists  rather 
than  by  botanists.  The  varieties  are  intermediate 
betweed  the  Americana  and  Chickasaw  groups.  The 
fruits  lack  entirely  the  dull -colored,  compressed, 
thick-skinned  and  meaty  characters  of  the  Ameri- 
canas,  and  approach  very  closely  to  the  Chickasaws. 


196         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

They  are  usually  covered  with  a  thin  bloom,  and  are 
more  or  less  marked  by  small  spots.  They  are  variable 
in  period  of  ripening,  there  being  a  difference  of  no 
less  than  two  months  between  the  seasons  of  some 
of  the  cultivated  varieties.  In  color  they  range  from 
the  most  vivid  crimson  to  pure  golden  yellow. 

In  the  seven  years  which  have  now  elapsed  since 
I  made  my  first  serious  study  of  the  botanical  fea- 
tures of  these  fruits,  I  have  had  trees  and  botanical 
specimens  of  the  native  plums  constantly  before  me 
in  great  variety,  and  certain  novel  conclusions 
respecting  the  botanical  status  of  this  hortulana 
class  have  been  forced  upon  me.  If  one  attempts 
to  make  an  analytical  study  of  this  Prunus  hortu- 
lana, he  is  first  of  all  impressed  with  the  singular 
fact  that,  whereas  cultivated  varieties  of  it  are  numer- 
ous, it  is  rare  in  a  wild  state,  and  is  almost 
unknown  to  field  botanists.  It  turns  up  now  and 
then  in  the  Mississippi  valley  region  and  in  Texas, 
but  the  stations  of  the  feral  plants  are  widely  scat- 
tered and  local.  Associated  with  this  comparative 
rarity  of  the  wild  plant  is  the  fact  that  the  species 
has  no  distinctive  range.  It  grows  where  both  the 
Chickasaw  and  Americana  types  grow,  but  it  appears 
not  to  occur  where  either  of  those  species  alone 
grows.  Well-marked  species  of  plants  nearly 
always  have  an  individual  geographical  range,  but 
the  distribution  of  Prunus  hortulana  seems  to  be 
accidental.  The  next  remarkable  feature  which  strikes 
the  critical  student  is  that,  although  there  are  cer- 
tain types  of  it  which  seem  to  have  well-marked 
specific  characters,  it  grades  off  imperceptibly  to  the 
Chickasaw  group  on  one  hand  and  to  the  Americana 


THE  GENESIS  OF  THE  HORTULANAS      197 


Fig.  29.    Kanawha  pluin. 

group  on  the  other.  So  true  is  this,  that  I  cannot 
give  a  single  technical  character  which  seems  to  be 
invariably  associated  with  the  species.  A  fourth 
noticeable  feature  is  the  tendency  to  emphatic  de- 
partures from  the  assumed  type  of  the  species, 
especially  in  the  direction  of  large-leaved  forms,  as 
in  the  Kanawha  (Fig.  29).  The  reader  has  already 
guessed  my  conclusion  :  Prunus  hortulana  is  a  name 


198         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

for  a  brood  of  natural   hybrids    between   Prunus   an- 
gustifolia  and  Primus  Americana* 

I  am  aware  that  it  is  a  dangerous  expedient  to 
invoke  hybridity  to  account  for  inexplicable  behaviors 
of  plants.  It  is  likely  to  serve  only  as  a  cloak  for 
superficial  knowledge,  but  it  is  convenient,  never- 
theless, and  in  the  present  instance  there  is  no  other 
resort  to  cover  the  writer's  ignorance  of  the  subject. 
But  there  is  really  much  explicit  foundation  for  the 
belief  in  this  hybridity,  as  I  have  already  explained; 
and  it  is  known  that  many  of  these  native  plums 
can  be  freely  hybridized.  I  am  the  more  convinced 
of  the  validity  of  this  position  from  the  similar 
behavior  of  certain  wild  apples,  the  vagaries  of  which 
are  explained  in  the  next  chapter.  Some  of  the 
plums  which  I  have  referred  to  Prunus  hortulana 
may  be  direct  developments  from  the  true  Chickasaw 
type,  and  others  may  be  direct  offshoots  or  variations 
from  the  Americana  type.  In  my  monograph  upon 
"The  Cultivated  Native  Plums  and  Cherries"  (Bull. 
38,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.),  I  made  a  sub-group  of  this 
hortulana  class  to  comprise  "a  few  anomalous  varie- 
ties which  appear  to  be  intermediate  between  Prunus 
hortulana  and  P.  Americana.  They  may  be  an  off- 
shoot of  P.  hortulana,  or  it  is  possible  that  they 
constitute  a  distinct  species.  The  Miner  is  par- 
ticularly well  marked,  but  there  are  others  which 
it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  separate  from  P.  hor- 
tulana. The  group  differs  from  the  species  by 
the  dull  and  comparatively  thick  leaves,  which  are 

This  disposition  was  first  made  in  Bot.  Gaz.  1896,  p.  462,  but  it  was  sug- 
gested two  years  earlier  (see  «  Survival  of  the  Unlike,"  424).  See,  also,  Bull.  131, 
Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  170  (1897). 


GENESIS    OP    THE    HORTULANAS  199 

conspicuously  veiny  below,  and  irregularly  coarsely 
toothed,  and  more  or  less  obovate  in  outline,  by  a 
late,  very  firm  fruit,  and  by  a  more  or  less  smooth 
and  Americana -like  stone.  I  am  not  able  to  designate 
the  range  of  the  wild  plant,  but  it  appears  to  occur 
in  Illinois  (and  perhaps  Indiana),  Missouri,  Ten- 
nessee, and  perhaps  in  Arkansas."  This  sub-group 
I  called  Prunus  hortulana  var.  Mineri.  The  varie- 
ties Miner  and  Forest  Rose  are  typical  of  it.  These 
are  so  near  Prunus  Americana  that  Sargent  refers 
them  to  that  species.  In  foliage  and  fruit  they  have 
marks  of  the  hortulana  tribe,  and  I  now  regard  them 
as  hybrids  —  perhaps  secondary  ones — which  partake 
very  strongly  of  the  Americana  blood. 

One  who  diligently  studies  the  native  plums  will 
be  impressed  with  the  great  variation  which  is  asso- 
ciated with  change  of  climate  or  locality.  In  the 
southern  states,  the  flowers  tend  to  appear  wholly 
in  advance  of  the  leaves,  and  they  are  borne  upon 
short  stalks,  or  may  be  nearly  or  quite  sessile.  In 
the  North,  the  flowers  and  leaves  are  generally  coeta- 
neous,  and  the  flower  stalks  are  usually  longer  This 
curious  phenomenon,  which  is  illustrated  in  the 
accompanying  engravings  (Figs.  30,  31),  is  due  to 
the  more  sudden  outburst  of  spring  in  the  North, 
by  virtue  of  which  all  the  latent  energies  of  the  plant 
are  pushed  into  simultaneous  expansion*.  The  same 
sudden  outburst  is  seen  in  Prunus  Americana  (Fig. 
32).  This  difference  is  often  so  pronounced  in 
botanical  specimens  of  flowering  shoots  of  the  same 
horticultural  variety,  taken  in  the  South  and  the 
North,  that  even  good  botanists  may  be  confounded 

*See,  also,  "Survival  of  the  Unlike,"  Essay  XVII. 


Pig.  30.    Newman,  grown  ir 
New  York. 


Fig.  31.    Newman,  grown  in 
Maryland. 


INFLUENCE    OP    CLIMATE 


201 


by  it.  But  the  differences  in  climate  are  not  recorded 
in  the  flowering  and  the  leafing  alone,  but  often  also 
in  the  form  and  texture  of  the 
leaves  and  in  the  character  of 
the  fruit.  The  Newman  plum, 
as  I  have  seen  it  growing  in 
Maryland,  I  should  refer  un- 
hesitatingly to  Prunus  angusti- 
folia,  but  as  it  grows  in  New 
York,  I  am  in 
doubt  whether  to 
refer  it  to  that  spe- 
cies or  to  Prunus 
hortulana.  These 
considerations  in- 
cline me  the  more 
to  discard  my  Prunus  hortulana 
as  an  original  species,  and  to 
use  it  in  the  future  merely  to 
designate  a  well-marked  group 
or  race  of  cultivated  plums,  the 
origin  of  which  is  to  be  found 
in  contemporary  environments 
and  in  the  natural  mixing  of 
two  parent  stocks  ;  and  thereby 
the  name  hortulana — "belong- 
ing to  a  garden" — becomes  even 
more  significant  than  I  in- 
tended. I  do  not  propose  this  ~** 
as  my  final  conclusion,  but  it  states  the  case  as 
I  see  it  at  this  writing.  To  my  mind,  this  view 
of  the  origin  of  these  valuable  hortulaua  plums  is 
most  satisfactory  and  inspiring,  for  it  is  a  working 


Fig.  32. 

Itaska,  grown  it 

Maryland. 


202         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

and  elastic  hypothesis  which  explains  and  co-ordi- 
nates the  rapid  events  of  contemporary  evolution. 

An  interesting  peculiarity  of  the  Wild  Goose 
plum  is  the  facility  with  which  it  appears  to 
hybridize  with  the  peach.  The  most  famous  in- 
stance of  such  apparent  hybridization  is  that  of 
the  so-called  Blackman  plum.  About  thirty  years 
ago,  Mrs.  Charity  Clark  procured  from  an  orchard 
in  Rutherford  county,  Tennessee,  which  contained 
Wild  Goose  and  Washington  plums,  seeds  of  plums, 
and  gave  them  to  Dr.  Blackman,  of  Nashville.  One 
tree  among  the  resulting  seedlings  bore  good  fruit, 
which  was  called  the  Blackman,  and  was  dissemi- 
nated by  a  local  nurseryman.  A  competing  nursery, 
in  endeavoring  to  procure  cions  from  this  tree,  inadver- 
tently cut  them  from  an  adjacent  tree — itself  one  of 
the  batch  of  seedlings — and  sold  the  trees  which  it 
grew  as  Blackman.  Now,  this  second  tree  makes  fruit- 
buds  in  abundance,  but  they  never  open  ;  and  from  the 
resemblance  of  the  leaves  to  those  of  the  peach,  the 
plant  is  generally  thought  to  be  a  hybrid  between  the 
Wild  Goose  and  the  peach.  Curiously  enough,  the 
genuine  Blackman  has  never  been  widely  disseminated, 
but  the  spurious  and  worthless  substitute  has  been  sold 
in  large  quantities.  In  order  to  avoid  confusion,  the 
original  Blackman  has  been  rechristened  Charity  Clark. 
There  are,  therefore,  two  Blackman  plums,  one  of 
which  is  practically  unknown  to  cultivation,  but  which 
has  been  renamed,  and  the  other  is  barren  and  will 
soon  pass  from  sight. 

The  only  authentic  hybrid  which  has  come  from  the 
union  of  the  Wild  Goose  and  the  peach  has  been  pro- 
duced by  J.  W.  Kerr,  of  Maryland.  Mr.  Kerr's  tree, 


THE    HORTULANA    VARIETIES  203 

as  I  recall  it,  is  large,  spreading  and  peach -like.  The 
leaves  are  long  and  peach -like,  although  rather  broad 
and  short -pointed,  but  the  flower-buds,  although  they 
form  in  profusion,  never  open,  so  that  the  tree  is  bar- 
ren. This  is  a  hybrid  between  the  Wild  Goose  and 
Troth's  Early  peach.  Twenty -five  flowers  of  Wild 
Goose  were  emasculated  in  the  bud  and  covered  with 
paper  sacks.  When  in  full  bloom,  peach  pollen  was 
applied,  but  the  flowers  were  not  again  covered. 
Twenty -one  of  the  flowers  set  fruit,  and  twenty -one 
trees  were  obtained  from  the  seeds.  Twenty  of  the 
trees  were  indistinguishable  from  peach,  but  the  re- 
maining one,  as  indicated  above,  gives  every  evidence 
of  being  an  intermediate. 

The  varieties  that  I  have  studied  which  fall  into 
Primus  hortulana  are  as  follows  : 

Clara,  Clark,  Cumberland,  Garfield,  Golden  Beauty, 
Indian  Chief,  Kauawha,  Missouri  Apricot  (Honey 
Drop),  Moreman,  Mrs.  Clifford,  Pool's  Pride,  Reed, 
Roulette,  Saffold,  Sophie,  Sucker  State,  Texas  Belle, 
Wayland,  Whitaker,  Wild  Goose,  Wooten,  World 
Beater. 

To  the  Miner  sub-group  I  should  refer  the  follow- 
ing varieties: 

Clinton,  Forest  Rose,  Idol,  Indiana  Red,  Iris,  Langs- 
don,  Leptune,  Miner,  Prairie  Flower,  Rachel. 

Since  the  above  account  of  the  hortulana  plums 
was  written,  Waugh  has  given  the  group  independent 
study,  and  writes  of  it  as  follows:* 

When,  in  1892,  Professor  Bailey  proposed  the  species  Prtinus 
hortulana  to  include  the  Wild  Goose  plum  and  its  nearest  rela- 
tives, it  was  at  first  a  relief  and  afterward  a  puzzle  to  horticul- 

*"The  New  View  of  the  Hortulana  Plums,"  Garden  and  Forest,  Sept.  1,  1897. 


204         THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

turists.  It  was  a  relief  to  have  these  anomalous  forms  separated 
from  Prunus  Americana  and  from  P.  angustifolia,  where  they  had 
previously  caused  confusion  ;  and  it  was  gratifying  to  have  them 
separately  characterized,  even  though  it  was  very  difficult  to 
make  the  specific  description  fit  all  the  varieties.  But  to  main- 
tain a  description  for  the  species  which  would  fit  all  the  varie- 
ties has  been  an  ever-growing  puzzle.  And  thus  a  second  time 
Professor  Bailey  has  brought  us  relief  by  his  decision  that  this 
is  "a  mongrel  type  of  plums,  no  doubt  hybrids" 

of  Prunus  Americana  and  P.  angustifolia. 

This  new  view  of  the  hortulana  plums  seems  likely  to  find 
much  readier  currency  among  pomologists  than  did  the  distinct 
species  view.  Indeed,  some  reputable  horticulturists  have  never 
accepted  the  separate  species  notion  ;  and  no  two  anywhere  or  at 
any  time  have  fully  agreed  upon  the  varieties  which  were  to  be 
referred  to  the  species. 

These  cultivated  varieties  present  an  inextricable  confusion 
of  closely  graded  differences  of  character  passing  without  a 
break  from  Prunus  Americana,  through  the  Miner  group  (Bailey's 
P.  hortulana  var.  Mineri),  then  through  the  Wild  Goose  group, 
and  by  way  of  such  varieties  as  Schley,  Clifford  and  Macedonia 
into  the  true  Chickasaws.  There  is  absolutely  no  line  of  demar- 
cation, however  dim,  among  these  varieties.  Such  a  series  of 
forms  cannot  be  conveniently  doled  out  into  species,  even  when 
we  take  the  most  advanced  evolutionary  view  of  what  constitutes 
a  species.  But  as  soon  as  the  Wild  Goose  group  is  understood  to 
be  a  company  of  hybrids,  the  matter  becomes  comparatively  clear. 
We  can  easily  believe  that  there  have  been  numerous  independent 
hybrid  origins  followed  by  still  more  numerous  secondary,  ter- 
tiary and  quartenary  crosses,  and  these  would  account  fully  for 
the  extraordinary  variability  and  wide  diversity  of  characters 
among  these  plums.  The  varieties  of  the  Miner  group  may  rea- 
sonably be  supposed  to  be  secondary  hybrids  between  Wild  Goose 
types  and  Prunus  Americans  ;  or  they  may  be,  in  some  instances, 
primary  hybrids  in  which  the  Americana  influence  has  preponder- 
ated. Such  varieties  as  Ohio  Prolific,  Schley,  Texas  Belle  and 
Wooten  may  be  supposed,  on  the  other  hand,  to  be  secondary 
hybrids  between  Wild  Goose  and  the  Chickasaws. 

All  this  will  drive  every  plum  student,  pomologist  or  botanist 


WAUGH    ON    THE    HORTULANAS  205 

to  a  conclusion  which  we  ought  to  have  reached  independently 
before;  namely,  that  no  full  classification  of  our  cultivated  varie- 
ties can  be  made  which  shall  be  satisfactory  to  everybody.  It  is 
a  matter  of  unquestionable  convenience  to  divide  our  multiform 
varieties  into  several  groups,  but  the  lines  between  these  groups 
are  purely  imaginary  and  arbitrary,  and  certain  varieties  which 
come  near  the  division  line  somewhere  may  be  put  into  one 
group  by  one  man  and  into  the  other  group  by  another,  and 
both  men  be  right.  It  is  all  a  matter  of  judgment,  and  a  very 
delicate  matter,  too.  There  has  already  been  too  much  contro- 
versy over  some  of  these  doubtful  varieties.  What  plum  students 
need  now  is  less  controversy  and  more  patience. 

The  cultivated  hortulana  plums  may  be  best  understood  by 
arranging  them  in  four  groups.  Three  of  these  have  been  men- 
tioned— the  Miner  group,  the  Wild  Goose  group,  and  the  Schley  or 
Clifford  group.  These  form  an  unbroken  series  from  Prunus 
Americana  to  P.  angustifolia.  There  is  a  fourth  group  at  present 
classified  with  the  hortulanas,  but  comparatively  distinct  from  the 
others.  This  group  is  made  up  of  such  varieties  as  Wayland, 
Moreman,  Golden  Beauty,  Eeed,  Leptune,  Kanawha  and  others. 

Waugh  makes  a  further  contribution  to  the  subject 
in  the  following  sketch  of  "The  Wayland  group  of 
plums:"* 

In  an  article  in  last  week's  issue  [quoted  above]  I  called 
attention  to  the  continuity  of  the  series  of  intergradients 
between  the  Americana  and  the  Chickasaw  plums,  and  said 
that  the  series  might  be  roughly  marked  by  three  types,  the 
Miner,  the  Wild  Goose,  and  the  Schley  or  Clifford.  It  was 
also  noted  that  another  group,  standing  somewhat  aside  from 
this  series,  might,  for  the  present  at  least,  be  regarded  as 
belonging  among  the  hortulana  plums,  and  that  this  group 
is  comparatively  distinct,  and  very  interesting.  This  I  have 
designated  as  the  Wayland  groupt  from  one  of  its  best  types, 
the  Wayland  plum.  Golden  Beauty  is  also  a  good  type  of  this 
group,  and  is  well  known  in  the  southern  states,  though  not 

*Garden  and  Forest,  September  8,  1897. 
tVermont  Experiment  Station,  10th  Report,  p.  103. 


206    THE  EVOLUTION  OP  OUR  NATIVE  FRUITS 

northward.  Moreman  is  the  commonest  variety  of  the  group 
in  the  northern  states,  but  is  not  well  known  in  the  South,  and 
is  not  quite  so  good  an  exponent  of  the  characters  which  mark 
this  group.  After  considerable  deliberation,  I  think  that  Way- 
land  is  the  best  and  most  convenient  group  name  for  these 
varieties. 

Of  course,  this  group  is  not  free  from  puzzling  forms  which 
show  equivocal  characters,  apparently  borrowed  from  the  Chicka- 
saws,  Ainericanas,  and  other  groups  ;  but  on  the  whole,  it  is 
much  better  marked  than  the  Miner  or  Wild  Goose  sections, 
which  have  for  several  years  been  thought  worthy  of  recog- 
nition. The  varieties  are  characterized  by  straight,  slender, 
dark-colored  twigs  ;  very  large,  luxuriant  foliage,  broad  leaves, 
which  are  often  pubescent  on  the  larger  veins  beneath,  and 
which  have  from  two  to  six  glands  on  the  petioles  ;  axillary 
buds  often  triple  ;  blossoms  and  fruit  very  late,  mostly  after 
Miner  ;  fruit  spherical,  or  nearly  so,  red  or  yellow,  with  many 
small  dots,  thin-skinned  and  of  fine  quality. 

Several  varieties  of  this  group  are  already  widely  distributed 
in  cultivation.  Others  of  considerable  promise  have  been 
recently  introduced.  Those  which  I  have  had  the  opportunity 
to  examine,  and  which  seem  to  belong  with  Wayland,  rather 
than  in  any  other  group,  are  Columbia,  Crimson  Beauty,  Cum- 
berland, Garfield,  Golden  Beauty,  Kanawha,  Leptune,  Missouri 
Apricot,  Moreman,  Nimon,  Reed,  Sucker  State,  Wayland  and 
Worldbeater.  Mr.  T.  V.  Munson,  in  correspondence,  mentions 
another  variety,  Erby's  September,  growing  in  his  grounds, 
which  apparently  belongs  with  those  named  here. 

Of  these  varieties,  Cumberland,  Golden  Beauty,  Kanawha, 
Leptune,  Reed  and  Wayland  best  show  the  distinctive  foliage 
and  tree  characters  which  separate  them  from  adjoining  types. 
These  are  all  good  plums  from  the  planter's  standpoint.  All 
of  them  are  very  ornamental.  Reed  is  one  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful trees  of  its  size  I  ever  saw. 

These  varieties  have  usually  been  put  in  the  Wild  Goose 
class,  though  Bailey,  who  has  done  most  of  the  work  in  the 
classification  of  native  plums,  puts  Leptune,  one  of  the  best 
marked  varieties,  into  the  Miner  group,  and  President  Berck- 
mans,  who  introduced  Kanawha,  says  "this  is  beyond  question 


PRUNUS    RIVULARIS  207 

a  form  of  Prunus  Americana."  The  whole  group  has  also  been 
roughly  referred  to  P.  glandulosa,  Torr.  &  Gray,  but  this  is  evi- 
dently a  mistake.  Mr.  T.  V.  Munson  has  given  this  question 
serious  study,  and  has  concluded  that  all  these  varieties  are 
derived  from  P.  rivularis,  Scheele.  This  is  a  somewhat  start- 
ling decision,  and  extremely  important  if  true.  The  facts  are, 
however,  first,  that  we  are  yet  too  poorly  acquainted  with  this 
species  to  make  critical  comparisons  ;  secondly,  that  Scheele's 
description,  made  at  second  hand  from  Lindheimer's  speci- 
mens, is  not  sufficiently  precise  to  preclude  mistakes  ;  thirdly, 
that  the  description,*  what  there  is  of  it,  fails,  in  important 
particulars,  to  fit  the  varieties  in  question  ;  and  fourthly,  that 
many  of  these  varieties  have  originated  in  localities  where  it 
is  almost  impossible  to  believe  that  P.  rivularis  could  be  grow- 
ing. (See  pages  223,  224.) 

To  particularize  further,  the  National  Herbarium  f  contains 
only  the  following  specimens  :  Those  of  Lindheimer,  collected 
in  western  Texas  in  1846  ;  one  by  Hall,  from  Dallas  ;  two  by 
Wolf,  collected  in  Illinois  in  1875,  and  very  possibly  cultivated 
specimens  ;  and  one  of  doubtful  authenticity,  by  Thomas  Bass- 
ler,  from  Manhattan,  Kansas.  Other  herbaria  seem  to  have 
no  better  representation  of  the  species,  and  this  could  hardly 
be  the  case  were  it  so  common  and  so  widely  distributed  as  to 
furnish  the  well-known  cultivated  varieties  mentioned  above. 


*Sinee  this  description  is  inaccessible  to  many  students,  it  will  be  well  to 
transcribe  it  here  : 

Prunus  rivularis,  Scheele,  Linncea,  xxi.,  594.  Frutex  3-6  pedalis;  rami  angu- 
lati  glabri  nitidi  cinerei  verruculosi,  verrucae  parvae  coiifertse.  Petioli  glandulosi 
canaliculati  puberuli.  Folia  ovate-oblonga  acuuiinata  insequaliter  serrulata,  basi 
glandulosa,  subtus  sporeae  pubescentia,  supra  glabra,  serraturw  callosae  confertae. 
Umbellse  laterales  sessiles  subbiflor*.  Squamae  gemmae  floriferae  aphylla?.  Pe- 
dunculi  glabri  elongati  subglandulosi,  petiolum  aequantes.  Flores  .  .  .  Drupa 
rubra  globosa  glabra  nitida  acida. 

"Gesellschaftlich  an  Bachrandern,  selltener  aber  jedesmal  in  Menge  zusam- 
menstehenden  auf  Hugeln.    Strauch  3-6'  hoch,  Frucht  kugelig,  hell-roth,  ange- 
nehm  sauerlich,  von  der  Grosse  eiuer  Kirsche  biszu  der  einer  Mirabelle.  %-i" 
diek.    Die  Tawakong-Indianer  sollen  die  Frucht,  mit  honig  gekocht,  sehr  lieben. 
Die  Texaner  nennen  sie  'Tawakong  plum.'  "—Lindheimer. 
Gehort  zur  Rotte  Eucerasus,  Torr.  &  Gray. 
Seltener  stehen  die  Blnmen  einzeln. 

tThe  specimens  in  the  National  Herbarium  were  kindly  examined  for  me  by 
Mr.  Lyster  H.  Dewey. 


208    THE  EVOLUTION  OF  OUR  NATIVE  FRUITS 

The  varieties  in  question  differ  from  Scheele's  description  in 
having  single  straight  trunks,  in  being  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
feet  high,  instead  of  from  three  to  six  feet,  and  in  having  often 
three  flowers  to  each  fascicle,  instead  of  one  or  two.  The  dis- 
tribution of  the  species  is  given  by  Coulter  as  "not  uncommon 
on  the  Colorado  and  its  tributaries,  and  extending  to  the  upper 
Guadalupe  and  the  Leona,"  and  the  specimens  referred  to 
above  give  no  important  evidence  of  its  occurrence  this  side 
of  western  Texas.  In  comparison  with  this  distribution,  the 
origin  of  the  cultivated  varieties  should  be  carefully  considered. 
As  far  as  known,  their  sources  are  as  follows  :  Cumberland, 
Tennessee  ;  Garfield,  Ohio  ;  Golden  Beauty,  southwest  Texas  ; 
Kanawha,  Fairview,  Kentucky  ;  Leptune,  Arkansas  ;  Missouri 
Apricot,  Missouri  ;  Moreman,  Kentucky  ;  Sucker  State,  Illinois  ; 
Wayland,  Cadiz,  Kentucky. 

The  evidence  of  this  list  is  quite  contrary  to  the  supposition 
of  a  Prunus  rivularis  parentage  for  the  varieties  named  ;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  must  be  regarded  as  decidedly  favorable  to 
their  classification  in  the  pseudo- species,  P.  hortulana. 

It  seems  to  me  important  that  this  group  of  plums  should 
be  understood  separately,  and  that  its  relationships  should  be 
worked  out  as  speedily  and  as  accurately  as  possible  ;  and 
while  the  evidence  here  reviewed  leads  me  to  reject  the 
hypothesis  of  their  derivation  from  Prunus  rivularis,  that 
species  seems  to  be  a  promising  one,  and  we  would  do  well 
not  to  lose  sight  of  it  too  soon. 


The  Marianna  Group 

In  1884  a  strange  plum  was  introduced  from  Texas 
under  the  name  of  Marianna.  It  was  said  to  be  a  na- 
tive. It  proved  to  have  little  value  for  fruit,  however, 
because  it  is  not  very  productive  and  the  quality  of 
the  plums  seems  to  lack  character;  but  it  is  found 
to  grow  readily  from  cuttings,  and  it  soon  came  to  be 
extensively  used  as  stock  upon  which  to  graft  other 
kinds  of  plums,  and  even  peaches  and  apricots ;  and  it 


THE    MYBOBALAN    PLUM  209 

is  still  much  employed  for  this  purpose  in  the  South. 
A  study*  of  this  new  type  of  plum  at  once  revealed  some 
striking  botanical  features,  and  it  was  found  that  the 
De  Caradeuc,  an  older  plum,  is  very  closely  related  to 
it ;  and  the  Hattie  is  probably  to  be  referred  to  the 
same  group.  This  class  differs  from  any  of  the  fore- 
going in  habit  of  tree,  very  early  flowering,  elliptic- 
ovate,  rather  small  and  finely  serrate  dull  leaves,  gland- 
less  leaf -stalks,  and  soft,  spherical,  very  juicy  plums 
of  a  "sugar  and  water"  character,  and  broad,  ovate 
stones,  which  are  scarcely  pointed  and  are  prominently 
furrowed  on  the  front  edge.  The  botanical  position  of 
these  plums  has  been  a  subject  of  speculation,  to  which 
1  have  added  my  full  share  of  confusion  by  referring 
them  to  Prunus  umbellata  of  the  South.  I  was  soon 
convinced,  however,  that  the  De  Caradeuc  is  a  myro- 
balan  plum,  and  that  the  Marianna  is  either  the  same 
species  or  a  hybrid  between  it  and  some  American 
plum,  possibly  the  Wild  Goose.  This  seemed  to  be  a 
startling  conclusion  at  the  time  that  it  was  first  ex- 
pressed, particularly  as  the  Marianna  had  come  to  be  so 
extensively  used  as  a  stock  to  replace  the  myrobalan, 
which  appears  to  be  growing  in  disfavor.  Before 
entering  into  detail  containing  the  origin  of  these 
plums,  it  will  be  useful  to  our  inquiry  to  clear  up  some 
of  the  history  of  the  myrobalan  plum  itself. 

The  myrobalan  plum  is  a  foreigner.  The  word 
myrobalan  (or  myrobolan),  as  a  noun,  is  used  to  desig- 
nate various  small  tropical  fruits  which  are  used  in  the 
arts,  chiefly  for  tanning  purposes.  It  is  now  com- 
monly applied  to  the  fruits  of  the  species  of  Terminalia, 
of  the  family  CombretaceeB,  which  are  imported  from 

*In  Bull.  38,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  1892, 

N 


210          THE     EVOLUTION    OF     OUR    NATIVE     FRUITS 

India.  The  word  was  early  applied  to  a  small  plum 
grown  in  Europe,  probably  because  of  some  resemblance 
in  size  or  other  characteristics  to  the  myrobalans  of 
commerce.  This  plum  has  had  a  curious  history.  The 
first  undoubted  reference  to  it  which  I  know  is  in  Clu- 
sius' Rariorum  Plantarum  Historia,  1601.  Clusius 
gives  a  good  figure  of  it,  but  says  that  it  was  not  gen- 
erally known.  Some  people  thought  that  it  came  origi- 
nally from  Constantinople,  and  others  that  it  came 
from  Gaul.  Clusius  leans  toward  the  latter  view.  He 
calls  it  the  rayrobalan  plum,  but  does  not  know  the 
origin  of  the  name.  For  nearly  two  hundred  years 
after  Clusius  wrote,  the  fruit  is  described  by  various 
authors  in  different  parts  of  Europe,  under  the  names 
of  myrobalan  and  cherry  plum,  during  which  time 
doubts  were  cast  upon  its  European  origin.  Thus 
Tournefort  in  1700  said  that  it  came  from  North 
America.  In  1789  Ehrhart*  described  it  as  a  distinct 
species  under  the  name  Primus  cerasifera,  or  "cherry- 
bearing  plum,"  and  said  distinctly  that  it  was  a  native 
of  North  America.  Some  thirty  years  before  this  time, 
Linnffius  had  described  it  as  Prunus  domestica  var. 
myrobalan,  and  gave  it  a  European  origin.  In  1812, 
Loiseleur-Deslongchampst  described  it  as  Prunus  myro- 
balana,  saying  that  it  was  supposed  to  be  of  American 
origin.  From  that  time  until  now  the  nativity  of  the 
myrobalan  plum  has  been  uncertain,  but  European 
writers  have  usually  avoided  the  difficulty  by  referring 
it  to  America ;  and  American  botanists  have  for  the 
most  part  ignored  it  because  it  is  a  cultivated  plant. 
So  it  happens  that  this  pretty  fruit  has  fallen  between 

*Beitrage  zur  Naturkunde,  iv.  17. 

tNouveau  Duhamel  Traite  des  Arbres  et  Arbustes,  v.  184,  t.  57,  Fig.  1. 


THE    MYROBALAN    PLUM  211 

two  countries,  and  is  homeless.  Sereno  Watson,  in 
his  "Index  to  North  American  Botany,"  published  in 
1878,  refers  Ehrhart's  Prunus  cerasifera  to  the  com- 
mon beach  plum  (Prunus  maritima)  of  the  Atlantic 
coast.  But  the  myrobalan  is  wholly  different  in  every 
character  from  the  beach  plum,  and  it  has  been  long 
cultivated  upon  walls  in  Europe,  a  treatment  which  no 
one  would  be  likely  to  give  to  the  little  beach  plum. 
Torrey  and  Gray,  in  1838,  in  the  "Flora  of  North  Amer- 
ica," do  not  mention  the  myrobalan  plum.  After  all 
the  exploration  of  the  North  American  flora,  no  plant 
has  been  found  which  could  have  been  the  original 
of  this  plum  ;  while  its  early  cultivation  in  Europe, 
together  with  the  testimony  of  Clusius  and  other  early 
herbalists,  is  strong  presumption  that  it  is  native  to 
the  Old  World.  This  conviction  is  increased  by  the 
doubt  which  exists  in  the  minds  of  the  leading  bota- 
nists, from  Linnaeus  down,  as  to  its  systematic 
position,  for  if  there  is  difficulty  in  separating  it  from 
Prunus  domestica,  the  original  of  the  common  plum, 
and  which  is  itself  a  native  of  the  Old  World  and 
immensely  variable,  there  is  strong  reason  for  suspect- 
ing that  it  is  only  an  offshoot  of  that  species;  and  this 
presumption  finds  strong  support  in  other  direc- 
tions. One  need  not  study  far  into  the  European 
plums  until  he  convinces  himself  that  the  essential 
features  of  the  myrobalan  plum  are  present  in  sev- 
eral of  the  wild  or  half -wild  forms  of  southern  and 
southeastern  Europe,  no  matter  what  the  ultimate 
origin  of  the  fruit  may  have  been.  In  recent  years  a 
purple -leaved  variety  of  this  myrobalan  plum  has 
come  into  cultivation  from  Persia,  under  the  name 
of  Primus  Pissardi.  I  have  no  doubt,  therefore,  that 


212         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

the  myrobalan  plum  is  native  to  Europe  or  Asia;  and 
it  is  full  time  that  an  American  origin  be  no  longer 
ascribed  to  it. 

The  myrobalan  plum  has  long  been  used  in  this 
country  as  a  stock  for  various  plums.  Except  upon 
the  Pacific  coast,  it  appears  to  be  falling  into  dis- 
repute, however,  as  it  dwarfs  the  cion,  and  is  not 
suited  to  all  varieties.  The  endeavor  to  find  some 
stock  which  can  take  the  place  of  the  myrobalau 
has  resulted  in  the  popularizing  of  the  Marian na, 
which,  if  not  pure  myrobalan,  certainly  partakes 
very  largely  of  it.  The  myrobalan  stock  is  widely 
distributed  in  this  country,  and  bearing  trees  of  it 
are  occasionally  seen.  The  Golden  Cherry  plum  of 
Downing  is  undoubtedly  this  species,  and  the  fruit 
now  known  as  Youngken's  Golden  Cherry  is  cer- 
tainly myrobalan,  and  it  is  probably  identical  with 
the  variety  described  by  Downing.  The  fruits  may 
be  either  yellow  or  red  in  various  shades.  They  are 
round  and  cherry -like,  with  a  depression  at  the  base, 
on  slender  stems,  ranging  in  size  from  that  of  a  large 
cherry  to  an  inch  and  a-half  in  diameter.  The  myro- 
balan is  very  variable,  a  fact  which  finds  record  and 
confirmation  in  the  various  characters  of  the  stones, 
as  shown  in  the  illustration  on  page  190. 

The  first  variety  of  this  Marianna  or  myrobalan 
type  to  be  introduced  as  a  native  plum  was  the  De 
Caradeuc.  This  is  an  early  garnet -red  plum.  It 
originated  with  A.  De  Caradeuc,  upon  his  former 
farm  near  Aiken,  South  Carolina,  about  the  years 
1850  to  1854.  Mr.  De  Caradeuc  imported  some 
French  plums,  from  the  seed  of  which  this  variety 
came.  There  were  several  Chickasaw  plums  in  the 


THE    MARIANNA  213 

vicinity  of  the  French  trees,  and  Mr.  De  Caradeuc 
thinks  that  the  variety  under  consideration  is  a 
hybrid,  but  I  am  unable  to  discover  any  evidence 
of  hybridity.  The  original  tree  of  the  variety  "out- 
grew the  parent,"  Mr.  De  Caradeuc  writes  me,  "and 
reached  a  diameter  of  head  of  fifteen  feet,  was 
entirely  free  from  thorns  and  suckers,  and  bore  a 
remarkably  rich  and  beautiful  foliage."  The  variety 
was  named  by  P.  J.  Berckmans,  the  excellent  pomol- 
ogist  of  Georgia,  and  he  regards  it  as  pure  myro- 
balan,  a  conclusion  with  which  I  am  strongly  inclined 
to  concur.  Another  indication  that  it  may  be  myro- 
balan,  is  the  fact  that  J.  W.  Kerr,  of  Maryland,  has 
grown  a  purple -leaved  plum  tree  from  a  seed  of  the 
De  Caradeuc,  thus  suggesting  Prunus  Pissardi,  which 
is  a  purple  form  of  the  Old  World  myrobalan. 

The  Marianna  is,  in  several  respects,  intermediate 
between  Prunus  cerasifera,  as  represented  in  De  Cara- 
deuc, and  the  native  American  plums,  particularly  in 
the  short-stemmed  fruit,  small,  nearly  sessile,  and 
clustered,  later  flowers,  and  erect,  narrow  calyx  lobes, 
and  spreading  habit.  It  is,  therefore,  little  surprise 
to  learn  that  the  originator  considers  it  a  seedling  of 
Wild  Goose.  It  originated  as  a  seedling  in  a  mixed 
orchard  at  Marianna,  Polk  county,  Texas,  the  property 
of  Charles  G.  Fitze.  So  far  as  I  can  learn,  the  seed 
was  not  hand -sown,  and  there  is  a  chance  for  error 
in  the  history.  The  variety  was  introduced  in  1884, 
by  Charles  N.  Eley,  Smith  Point,  Texas. 

The  Hattie  and  some  others  are  of  this  group,  but 
I  have  not  traced  the  history  of  them. 


214         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 


The   Beach   Plum    Group 

The  beach  plum  is  a  straggling,  more  or  less 
decumbent  bush,  reaching  three  to  six  or  even  twelve 
feet  in  height,  growing  in  the  sands  of  the  sea-coast 
from  New  Brunswick  to  Virginia,  and  perhaps  extend- 
ing farther  towards  the  Southwest ;  and  also  near  the 
head  of  Lake  Michigan,  where  it  has  recently  been 
found.  The  flowers  are  rather  large  for  the  size  of 
the  plant,  and  are  borne  on  promi- 
nent stalks  in  clusters.  The  fruit 
(Fig.  33),  is  about  half  an  inch 
in  diameter  in  the  best  forms, 
and  is  deep,  dull  purple  when  ripe, 
and  covered  with  a  dense  bloom ; 
the  flesh  is  brittle,  sweet  and 
juicy,  entirely  free  from  the  stone; 
the  skin  is  thick  and  tough,  and 
usually  leaves  an  acrid  taste  in 
Fig.  33.  the  mouth  when  the  fruit  is  eaten. 

Beach  plum  (Pmnus  mar-    Upon   the  Jersey   coast   the  fruit 

itima).    Full  size 

is    ripe    the    middle    of    August. 

Primus  maritima,  as  this  beach  plum  is  called,  is 
in  cultivation  as  an  ornamental  plant,  it  being  very 
showy  when  in  bloom  and  interesting  in  fruit.  It 
succeeds  well  under  cultivation  in  the  interior  states. 
As  a  fruit  plant  it  has  given  rise  to  but  one  variety, 
the  Bassett's  American.  This  variety  is  a  third  larger 
than  the  ordinary  wild  beach  plum,  but  it  does  not 
•differ  greatly  in  other  respects  than  in  size.  It  was 
introduced  about  twenty  years  ago  by  Wm.  F.  Basse tt, 
Hammonton,  N.  J.,  who  bought  the  original  tree  from 
a  man  who  found  it  in  the  neighborhood.  It  grows 


PRUNUS    SUBCORDATA  215 

well  upon  the  Wild  Goose,  and  Mr.  Bassett  writes  me 
that  he  has  a  tree  on  such  roots  which  is  fifteen  feet 
high.  It  was  brought  to  notice  largely  through  the 
efforts  of  the  Rumson  nurseries,  in  New  Jersey,  where  it 
was  worked  upon  the  myrobalan  plum  and  the  peach. 
I  have  seen  a  vigorous,  large  tree  at  Mr.  Kerr's,  in 
Maryland,  grafted  upon  the  Richland,  which  is  Prunus 
domestica.  Mr.  Kerr  also  finds  that  it  grows  upon 
the  Chickasaws.  The  variety  has  small  merit. 

The  beach  plum  type  is  variable,  and  Small  has 
recently  described  a  new  species  of  it,  Prunus  Gravesii, 
from  Connecticut.* 

The   Pacific    Coast   Plum 

The  wild  plum  of  the  Pacific  coast  is  the  nearest 
approach  to  the  European  type  of  any  plum  in  the 
American  flora.  There  is  a  reason  for  this  in  the 
similarity  of  climate  of  our  western  coast  to  that  of 
Europe,  for  similar  conditions  develop  similar  plants. 
It  is  interesting  to  note,  also,  that-  the  pomology  of 
California — with  its  wine  and  raisin  grapes,  olives, 
figs,  almonds,  and  citrous  fruits — is  more  akin  to  that 
of  Europe  than  it  is  to  that  of  eastern  America. 
This  wild  Pacific  plum  is  Prunus  subcordata  (Fig. 
34).  It  grows  west  of  the  mountains  in  northern 
California  and  southern  Oregon.  The  typical  form 
grows  either  as  a  tall  shrub  or  a  small  tree,  but  usu- 
ally not  reaching  above  three  to  six  feet  high.  The 
fruit  varies  from  nearly  globular  to  oblong,  and  is 
usually  dark  red  and  subacid,  the  flesh  clinging 
tightly  to  the  flat,  smooth  stone.  It  is  usually  unpalat- 

*Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club,  xxiv.  45. 


216         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

able,  and  the  plant  is  probably  not  in  cultivation  out- 
side'of  botanic  gardens  and  experimental  grounds 

There  is  a  form  of  this  Pacific  plum  which  produces 
attractive  fruit,  however.  This  is  the  so-called  Sisson 
plum,  bearing  the  name  of  Mr.  Sisson,  of  Strawberry 


Fig.  34.    Pacific  coast  plum.    (Primus  subcordata.l    Natural  size. 


valley,  near  the  base  of  Mt.  Shasta,  who  has  been 
instrumental  in  bringing  it  to  notice.  This  form  is 
known  as  Prunus  subcordata  var.  Kelloggii  (J.  G.  Lem- 
mon,  Pittonia,  1890,  p.  67).  The  tree  is  a  taller  grower 
than  P.  subcordata  itself,  the  leaves  less  cordate,  and 
the  fruit  larger,  yellow  or  red,  soft  and  palatable. 
Luther  Burbank  writes  me  that  the  twigs  of  yellow - 
fruited  plants  are  greenish  yellow,  and  those  of  the 
red -fruited  plants  are  reddish  brown.  He  also  tells 
me  that  seeds  of  the  yellow  fruits  may  produce  red 


PACIFIC    COAST    PLUM  217 

plums,  and  vice-versa.  This  Sisson  plum  is  locally 
cultivated  in  parts  of  California,  and  it  is  thought 
by  some  to  give  promise  of  a  new  race  of  plums. 

The  fruits  shown  in  the  accompanying  photograph, 
received  from  California,  were  light  herryred,  marked 
with  many  minute  golden  dots.  They  were  depressed- 
globular,  with  a  distinct  suture,  a  short  stem,  and  a 
firm,  meaty,  rather  dry,  insipid  flesh,  and  freestones. 
Mr.  Burbank  sends  me  fruits  of  hybrids  of  this  species 
with  the  Robinson  (one  of  the  Chickasaws),  which 
are  an  improvement  in  quality. 

Wickson,  in  his  "California  Fruits,"  writes  as  fol- 
lows of  the  Pacific  plum  :  "  Early  efforts  were  made  to 
domesticate  these  wild  plums,  and  they  showed  them- 
selves susceptible  of  improvement  by  cultivation  to  a 
certain  extent.  In  1856  there  was  on  the  Middle  Yuba 
river,  not  far  from  Forest  City,  in  Sierra  county, 
a  wayside  establishment,  known  as  'Plum  Valley 
Ranch,'  so  called  from  the  great  quantity  of  wild 
plums  growing  on  and  about  the  place.  The  plum  by 
cultivation  gave  a  more  vigorous  growth  and  larger 
fruit.  Transplanted  from  the  mountains  into  the  valley, 
they  are  found  to  ripen  earlier.  Transplanted  from 
the  mountains  to  a  farm  near  the  coast,  in  Del  Norte 
county,  they  did  not  thrive.  One  variety,  moved  from 
the  hills  near  Petaluma,  in  1858,  was  grown  as  an 
orchard  tree  for  fifteen  years,  and  improved  both  in 
growth  and  quality  of  fruit  by  cultivation.  The  atten- 
tion of  fruit-growers  was  early  drawn  to  the  possible 
value  of  the  wild  plum  as  grafting  stock,  and  it  is 
reported  to  have  done  fairly  well  on  trial.  Recently 
excellent  results  have  been  reported  from  the  domesti- 
cation of  the  native  plum  in  Nevada  county,  and  fruit 


218         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

shown  at  the  state  fair  of  1888  gave  assurance  that  by 
cultivation  and  selecting  seedlings,  valuable  varieties 
can  be  obtained.  It  is  stated  that  in  Sierra  county  the 
wild  plum  is  the  only  plum  which  finds  a  market  at 
good  prices,  and  that  cultivated  gages,  blue  and  egg 
plums  scarcely  pay  for  gathering.  The  wild  plum 
makes  delicious  preserves." 

Varioits  Other  Types  of  Plums 

We  have  now  explored  all  those  groups  or  families 
of  native  plums  which  have  been  impressed  into 
cultivation  to  any  extent  for  the  sake  of  their  fruits. 
There  still  remain  a  few  species  whose  fruits,  in  the 
wild  state,  are  sufficiently  palatable  to  attract  the 
experimenter,  and  which  should  be  mentioned  in  this 
narrative. 

Sand  plum. —  The  Sand  plum  of  Nebraska  and  cen- 
tral Kansas  is  the  most  important  of  the  plums 
which  we  have  not  yet  discussed.  So  recently  has 
this  plum  come  to  be  known  that  it  has  never  had  a 
specific  name  until  Professor  Sargent  described  it  as 
Prunus  Watsoni,  four  years  ago  ("Garden  and  Forest," 
vii.  134).  It  is  a  compact -growing  bush  of  three  or 
four  feet  in  height,  bearing  a  profusion  of  small,  red- 
dish, juicy  fruits  (Fig.  35).  The  inhabitants  of  those 
parts  of  the  West  where  this  plum  is  native  collect 
the  better  forms  in  large  quantities  for  domestic  con- 
sumption, and  even  sell  the  fruits  in  the  towns.  The 
plant  is  also  occasionally  transplanted  to  gardens. 
"The  hardiness  of  Prunus  Watsoni  in  regions  of 
extreme  cold,"  writes  Sargent,  "its  compact,  dwarf 
habit,  abundant  flowers  and  handsome  fruit,  make  it 


SAND    PLUM 


219 


an  ornamental  plant  of  first-rate  value,  and  as  selec- 
tion and  good  cultivation  will  doubtless  improve  the 
size  and  quality  of  the  fruit,  it  will,  perhaps,  become 
a  valuable  inmate  of  small  fruit -gardens."  This  sand 


Fig.  35.     Sand  plum.    Natural  size. 

plum  is  very  like  the  Chickasaw  plum  in  botanical 
characters,  and  I  think  that  it  is  only  a  modified  form 
of  that  species,  the  variation  having  been  brought 
about  by  the  dry  soils  and  climates  in  which  it  grows. 
It  differs  from  the  Chickasaw  in  its  dwarfer  habit, 
thicker  leaves  and  thicker- skinned  fruit,  and  some- 


220         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

what  different  stone  ;  but  all  of  these  characters  are 
eminently  variable  in  plums,  and  they  seem,  for  the 
most  part,  to  be  the  result  of  adaptation  to  habitat. 
We  shall  recur  to  this  sand  plum  in  our  discussion 
of  the  Utah  Hybrid  Cherry  (page  244.) 

The  latest  contribution  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
sand  plums  is  the  following  sketch  by  Waugh  :  * 

Although  it  is  now  nearly  four  years  since  Sargent  distin- 
guished Prunus  Watsoni  from  P.  angustifolia  (C.  S.  Sargent, 
Garden  and  Forest,  vol.  vii.,  p.  134,  1894),  the  individuality  of 
the  group  does  not  seem  to  have  made  any  very  decided  impres- 
sion either  upon  botanists  or  horticulturists,  and  material  which 
ought  to  be  referred  to  this  species  is  still  sometimes  carelessly 
classified  with  the  Chickasaw  plums.  As  the  group  has  already 
given  some  evidence  of  utility,  and  as  it  may  prove  of  consider- 
ably greater  importance  in  the  future  evolution  of  American 
plums,  it  appears  to  be  especially  desirable  to  have  the  knowl- 
edge of  it  clearly  in  the  minds  of  plum  students. 

The  most  striking  difference  between  the  sand  plum  and  the 
Chickasaw  is  that  of  stature.  The  sand  plum  is  distinctly  a 
dwarf,  seldom  growing  much  higher  than  a  man's  head,  and  some- 
times reaching  maturity  and  prolific  fruitage  at  a  height  of  four 
feet.  Beside  this,  the  whole  dwarfish  appearance  is  measurably 
intensified  by  the  short-jointed,  often  sharply -zigzagging  twigs, 
which  give  an  effect  of  thorniness.  These  twigs  are  apt  to  be 
ashy-gray,  especially  at  two  or  three  years  of  age.  The  leaves  are 
smaller  than  those  of  the  Chickasaw  plums,  and  are  more  finely 
crenulate  upon  the  margins,  but  offer  no  safe  distinctive  char- 
acters. In  the  most  carefully  prepared  published  descriptions  of 
the  two  species,  the  few  distinctions  given  are  hard  to  apply.  Of 
Prunus  angustifolia  the  calyx  lobes  are  said  to  be  glandular- ciliate, 
while  those  of  P.  Watsoni  are  described  as  eglandular-ciliate. 
And  while  all  the  garden  and  herbarium  specimens  of  P.  Watsoni 
which  I  have  examined  have  shown  eglandular  calyx  lobes,  so 
have  several  of  the  cultivated  varieties  of  Chickasaw  parentage. 
The  two  species  are  evidently  closely  related,  but  one  who  is 

*"The  Sand  Plums,"  Country  Gentleman,  January  27,  1898. 


WAUGH    ON    SAND    PLUMS  221 

acquainted  with  P.  Watsoni  would  seldom  be  troubled  in  separat- 
ing them  in  the  field.  With  herbarium  material  alone,  a  case  of 
doubt  would  be  hard  to  settle. 

The  sand  plums  are  confused  in  several  trade  catalogues,  and 
in  the  minds  of  some  persons  who  ought  to  keep  such  things 
straight,  with  the  sand  cherry,  Prunus  Besseyi,  and  still  more 
seriously  with  the  Utah  Hybrid  cherry,  which  Bailey  supposes  to 
be  a  hybrid  of  P.  Besseyi  and  P.  Watsoni.  This  confusion  is 
entirely  unnecessary,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  it  will  quite  dis- 
appear as  soon  as  attention  can  be  fixed  upon  the  facts. 

The  natural  range  of  Prunus  Watsoni  seems  to  be  quite  cir- 
cumscribed. Sargent  locates  it  upon  "sandy  streams  and  hills, 
south  and  southeast  Nebraska  and  central  and  western  Kansas." 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  its  distribution  within  this  limited  range  is 
by  no  means  general.  In  Kansas,  where  I  have  been  entirely 
familiar  with  it,  the  sand  plum  is  confined  almost  exclusively 
to  the  sandy  lands  in  the  immediate  valleys  of  the  Republican 
and  Arkansas  rivers  and  their  tributaries,  although  it  is  found 
more  sparsely  in  the  Smoky  Hill  and  Kansas  River  valleys. 
Mason  says:  "Have  not  noted  it  east  of  Wabaunsee  county." 
(S.  C.  Mason,  "Variety  and  Distribution  of  Kansas  Trees,"  page 
8.)  The  species  is  commonly  reported  from  Oklahoma,  but 
though  I  have  frequently  been  as  far  west  as  Kingfisher  and  El 
Reno,  I  have  never  seen  it.  The  dwarf  sand  plums  which  I  have 
frequently  found  in  that  territory,  and  which  I  have  sometimes 
seen  brought  to  the  market,  were  of  the  species  Prunus  gracilis. 
Still  I  think  it  probable  that  P.  Watsoni  grows  in  Oklahoma,  at 
least  in  some  of  the  western  counties.  This  opinion  is  strength- 
ened by  the  introduction  of  undoubted  varieties  of  this  species 
from  the  Panhandle  of  Texas  (see  below). 

Early  settlers  in  Kansas,  before  their  own  orchard  plantings 
came  into  bearing,  used  to  find  the  sand  plums  well  worth  their 
attention.  In  July  and  August  everybody  for  fifty  miles  back 
from  the  Arkansas  sand  hills  used  to  flock  thither  to  pick,  and  it 
was  an  improvident  or  an  unlucky  family  which  came  off  with  less 
than  four  or  five  bushels  to  can  for  winter.  Whole  wagon  loads 
of  fruit  were  often  secured,  and  were  sometimes  offered  for  sale 
in  neighboring  towns. 

The  fruit  gathered  from  the  wild  trees  was  of  remarkably  fine 


222         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

quality,  considering  the  conditions  under  which  it  grew.  The 
plums  were  quite  uniformly  large— I  would  say  from  memory  that 
they  often  reached  three-fourths  of  an  inch  to  an  inch  in  diameter. 
They  were  thin-skinned  and  of  good  flavor,  not  having  the  un- 
pleasant astringency  of  the  wild  Americana  plums,  which  were  also 
sometimes  gathered.  They  were  excellent  for  canning,  and  made 
the  finest  of  jelly.  In  this  connection  I  may  quote  F.  T.  Ramsey, 
nurseryman  of  Austin,  Texas,  who  writes  me:  "As  far  back  as  I 
can  remember,  I  have  heard  people  who  crossed  the  upper  plain  of 
Texas  speak  of  the  large  wild  plums  that  grew  there.  It  seems 
that  in  their  wild  state  they  grew  as  large  as  a  Wild  Goose." 

Naturally,  the  settlers  who  went  every  year  to  the-  sand  hills 
for  plums  brought  back  trees  to  plant  in  the  gardens  they  were 
opening.  Almost  every  farm  within  the  range  mentioned  above 
had  a  few  or  many  of  the  dwarf  trees  growing.  Some  of  these 
were  fruitful  and  worth  their  room,  but  most  of  them  have  now 
died  out,  or  are  neglected  and  forgotten.  This  is  because  people 
have  paid  no  attention  to  their  selection,  propagation  and  culti- 
vation. Further  than  this,  however,  the  sand  plum  has  often 
failed  signally  to  come  up  to  its  record  when  transferred  to  culti- 
vation. It  seems  not  to  adapt  itself  readily  to  a  wide  diversity  of 
soils  and  conditions. 

Still,  an  occasional  variety  has  been  deemed  worthy  of 
propagation  and  the  distinction  of  a  name.  The  Bluemont  was 
introduced  by  E.  Gale,  of  Manhattan,  Kansas,  during  the  sixties 
(Vermont  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  53,  p.  62,  1896).  A  reliable  nursery- 
man of  Junction  City,  Kansas,  writes  me  that  the  Bluemont  is 
considered  the  best  variety  they  have  for  canning,  but  it  has 
always  been  propagated  from  root- sprouts,  which  is  a  drawback 
to  its  widest  popularity.  Recently  I  have  found  four  other 
varieties  growing  in  Mr.  Kerr's  orchards  in  Maryland,  which  I 
have  referred  to  this  species  (Vermont  Exp.  Sta.,  10th  Ann. 
Rept.,  p.  106,  1897).  These  are  Strawberry,  Purple  Panhandle, 
Red  Panhandle,  Yellow  Panhandle.  Strawberry  is  mentioned 
by  Bailey  (Cornell  Exp.  Sta.,  Bull.  38,  p.  31,  1892),  who  knew 
nothing  of  its  history,  and  is  by  him  put  with  the  Chickasaws, 
as  were  all  forms  of  Prunus  Watsoni  at  that  time.  On  the  same 
page  where  Strawberry  is  mentioned,  the  author  says  :  "I  have 
plants  from  Kansas,  under  the  name  of  ' Kansas  Dwarf  Cherry,' 


SAND    PLUM  223 

which  are  evidently  a  bush-like  form  of  this  species."  These 
must  also  have  been  Prunus  Watsoni*  The  varieties,  Purple 
Panhandle,  Red  Panhandle  and  Yellow  Panhandle,  were  intro- 
duced from  Texas  by  F.  T.  Ramsey.  Mr.  Ramsey  says  that 
eight  or  nine  years  ago  he  got  a  quantity  of  stock  "from  various 
counties  in  the  upper  Panhandle  proper"  of  Texas.  Besides 
the  varieties  named,  he  had  another  called  Clarendon.  He  says 
further  :  "  I  have  been  greatly  disappointed  in  them  here,  and 
have  dropped  them  from  my  catalogue  this  year,  for  the  one  reason 
that  they  did  not  grow  large  enough.  This  winter  I  have  been 
surprised  to  have  several  inquiries  for  them  from  parties  who 
bought  them  from  me,  on  account  of  the  enormous  crops  they 
bore." 

It  seems  entirely  possible  that  we  may  yet  find  ourselves  in 
possession  of  some  valuable  varieties  derived  from  this  species, 
though  no  vevry  sweeping  recommendation  could  fairly  be  given 
any  variety  now  known. 

At  one  time  and  another  I  have  heard  a  good  deal  of  talk 
about  using  Prunus  Watsoni  as  a  dwarf  stock  for  working  other 
plums,  but  I  never  knew  of  an  experiment  in  that  line.  The 
tendency  to  sprout  from  the  roots  would  be  a  defect  in  using 
the  plants  for  stocks. 

In  Maryland,  the  young  growth  and  blossoms,  especially  of 
Strawberry,  are  severely  damaged  by  the  brown-rot  fungus, 
Monilia  fructigena.  In  their  original  wild  state,  along  the 
Arkansas  river,  they  used  to  be  free  from  brown-rot,  black- 
knot  and  curculio,  but  I  lived  in  that  country  long  enough  my- 
self to  see  them  attacked  by  both  curculio  and  black-knot. 

The  rivwlaris  plum.— The  Towakong  or  Creek  plum, 
of  Texas,  is  one  of  which  I  have  no  personal  knowl- 
edge, except  from  herbarium  specimens.  It  was  first 
brought  to  notice  by  the  botanical  collector  Lind- 
heimer,  and  described  in  1848  by  Scheele  as  Prunus 
rivularis  in  "Linnaea"  (xxi.  p.  594).  This  is  a  bushy 
plant,  three  to  six  feet  high,  which  Gray  speaks  of  as 

*  The  supposition  is  correct.  Both  the  Strawberry  and  the  Kansas  form  are 
Prunus  Watsoni.— L.  H.  B. 


224    THE  EVOLUTION  OF  OUB  NATIVE  FRUITS 

"verging  to  Americana."  It  grows  on  the  banks  of 
streams  and  margins  of  bottom -woods,  mostly  in 
thickets.  The  fruit  is  said  to  be  very  agreeable. 
Scheele  describes  the  fruit  as  the  size  of  cherry  to 
that  of  a  mirabelle  (myrobalan  plum),  half  an  inch  to 
an  inch  thick,  spherical  and  red.  The  Towakong 
Indians  boil  it  with  honey,  and  use  it  for  food. 
Coulter,  in  his  "Flora  of  Western  Texas,"  says  that 
this  plum  is  "not  uncommon  on  the  Colorado  and  its 
tributaries  and  extending  to  the  upper  Guadalupe  and 
the  Leona."  It  is  not  in  cultivation.  It  evidently 
bears  much  the  same  relation  to  the  Prunus  Ameri- 
cana that  Prunus  Watsoni  does  to  the  Chickasaw 
plum*  (see  pages  207,  208). 

The  southern  sloe.— The  black  sloe  of  the  southern 
states,  Prunus  umbellata,  attains  a  height  of  twelve  to 
twenty  feet,  and  the  foliage  is  somewhat  like  narrow- 
leaved  forms  of  the  myrobalan  plum.  It  is  distributed 
in  the  maritime  districts  from  South  Carolina  to  Texas, 
reaching  north,  in  its  southwestern  ranges,  to  south- 
ern Arkansas.  Sargent  says,  in  his  "Silva,"  that  "the 
fruit  is  gathered  in  large  quantities  and  is  used  in 
making  jellies  and  jams."  In  Florida  it  is  sometimes 
called  Hog  plum.  Fruit  sent  me  from  that  state  was 
orange -yellow,  with  faint  blushes  of  red,  or  some 
specimens  pure  yellow,  with  a  thin  bloom,  freestone, 
very  sour  and  bitter.  A  Texas  correspondent  writes 
that  the  fruit  is  usually  unpleasant  or  disagreeable, 
but  that  an  occasional  form  bears  large  and  good 
fruit.  Prunus  umbellata  is  not  in  cultivation  for  its 
fruit,  and  it  is  not  likely  that  it  can  compete  in 

*  Scheele's  Prunus  Texana,  of  which  there  is  a  duplicate  type  in  the  her- 
barium of  the  Missouri  Botanical  Gardens,  is  Prunus  Americana.  See  p.  184. 


PRUNUS     UMBELLATA 


225 

hortu- 


fruit- bearing   merits   with   the    Chickasaw   and 
lana  plums.* 

The  Alleghany  plum  is  a  small   tree   or   straggling 
bush,  closely  allied  to  Primus  Americana,  which  occu- 


Fig.  36.    Alleghaiiy  pluui.    Natural  size. 

pies  a  very  restricted  range    in  the  mountains  of  cen- 
tral   Pennsylvania.       The    species    was     distinguished 

*Since  this  account  was  sent  to  the  printer,  John  K.  Small  has  published 
a  new  species.  Primus  injucunda,  closely  allied  to  P.  umbellata  (Bull.  Torr. 
Bot.  Club,  xxv.  149).  It  has  an  oblong,  very  bitter  fruit,  and  grows  on  Stone 
Mountain,  N.  W.  Georgia 


226         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

from  the  Americana  plums  nearly  forty  years  ago,  but 
it  was  not  described  as  a  distinct  species  until  1877, 
when  Professor  T.  C.  Porter  named  it  Prunus  Alle- 
ghaniensis.  According  to  Sargent,  "the  fruit  is  col- 
lected in  large  quantities,  and  is  made  into  excellent 
preserves,  jellies  and  jams,  which  have  a  considerable 
local  consumption."  He  holds  the  opinion  that  it 
"will  probably  be  improved  by  selection  and  cultiva- 
tion." As  I  have  grown  the  Alleghany  plum,  it 
makes  an  upright  small  tree,  and  bears  rather  freely 
of  small,  hard,  spherical  plums  (see  Fig.  36)  of  dark 
purple  color,  with  a  decided  bloom,  and  acerb  and 
uneatable  in  quality.  Its  merits  as  a  fruit-bearing 
plant  seem  to  be  so  inferior  to  those  of  the  Ameri- 
cana plums,  that  I  do  not  look  for  any  attempt  to 
ameliorate  the  species  for  many  years  to  come. 

NOTE.— Persons  who  wish  to  follow  the  details  of  varieties 
and  methods  of  cultivation  of  the  native  plums  should  consult 
Goff's  excellent  account  of  "The  Culture  of  Native  Plums  in  the 
Northwest,"  Bull.  63,  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Oct.  1897;  also  Waugh's 
"Pollination  of  Plums,"  Bull.  53,  Vt.  Exp.  Sta.  Aug.  1896,  and 
10th  Rep.  Vt.  Exp.  Sta.  1896  7.  A  good  account  of  the  botany 
of  plums  and  cherries,  by  Bessey,  may  be  found  in  Rep.  Nebr. 
Hort.  Soc.  1895.  See,  also,  Waugh,  Bot.  Gaz.,  July,  1898. 

The   Native    Cherries 

North  America  has  little  to  attract  the  experi- 
menter in  the  way  of  native  cherries.  Most  of  the 
tree  cherries  belong  to  the  racemose  type,  the  flowers 
being  borne  in  more  or  less  elongated  clusters,  of  which 
the  lowermost — those  nearest  the  parent  shoot — open 
first.  This  type  of  cherries  has  never  given  important 
results  in  the  amelioration  of  the  fruits  in  any  part 


BIRD    CHERRIES  227 

of  the  world.  The  chief  historic  representative  of  this 
class  is  the  Padus  or  bird  cherry  (Primus  Padus)  of 
the  Old  World,  of  which  our  choke  cherry  (Prunus 
Virginiana)  is  the  occidental  congener.  There  are 
occasional  forms  of  the  Padus  which  bear  fruit  of 
some  merit,  but  they  are  wretchedly  inferior  to  the 
improved  forms  of  the  umbellate -flowered  or  garden 
cherries.  Now  and  then  one  finds  a  choke  cherry 
bush  which  bears  more  pulpy  and  more  pleasant- 
tasted  fruit  than  is  the  wont  of  the  species,  but  even 
these  variations  offer  little  temptation  to  the  cultiva- 
tor. The  choke  cherry  is  cultivated  for  ornament, 
however.  It  is  scarcely  inferior  for  that  purpose 
to  its  Old  World  congener  (Prunus  Padus),  although 
its  flowers  are  somewhat  smaller  than  in  that  species, 
and  they  are  also  a  few  days  earlier.  If  grown  as  a 
lawn  tree  where  a  symmetrical  development  cau  be 
secured,  the  choke  cherry,  both  in  bloom  and  in 
fruit,  is  an  attractive  object.  Although  rarely  more 
than  a  large  tree -like  bush,  the  choke  cherry  is  often 
confounded  with  the  wild  black  cherry,  but  it  is 
readily  distinguished  by  the  very  sharp  small  teeth 
pf  the  leaves.  The  fruit  of  the  choke  cherry  is 
commonly  red,  but  amber -fruited  plants  are  occasion- 
ally found.* 

The  choke  cherry  is  undoubtedly  capable  of  some 
improvement  under  cultivation.  Even  in  a  wild  state, 
the  fruit  is  capable  of  yielding  acceptable  jelly. t 
Ameliorated  varieties  of  the  choke  cherry  are  occa- 
sionally described,  but  there  is  a  suspicion  that 

*Prunus  Virginiana  var.  leucocarpa,  Watson,  Bot.  Gnz.  xiii.  233. 
tSee,  for  example,  P.  A.  Waugh,  Garden  and  Forest,  U.  388,  and  J.  E. 
Learned,  1.  c.  408. 


228    THE  EVOLUTION  OF  OUR  NATIVE  FRUITS 

some  of  them  may  be  the  European  bird  cherry, 
Prunus  Padus,  which  is  distinguished  from  the  choke 
cherry  with  difficulty,  and  which  is  often  grown  here 
for  ornament.  The  following  extracts  show  to  what 
extent  these  fruits  have  yet  appealed  to  the  culti- 
vator : 

THE  CHOKE  CHERRY  IN  CULTIVATION.*— Recent  notes  in 
"Garden  and  Forest,"  as  well  as  other  sources  of  information, 
seem  to  indicate  that  the  choke  cherry  is  unknown  to  cultivation. 
Such  is  not  the  fact,  although  its  use  is  apparently  limited  and 
local.  One  of  the  earliest  recollections  of  my  boyhood  has  to  do 
with  two  or  three  choke  cherry  trees  beyond  the  garden  in  the 
edge  of  the  old  orchard,  and  I  can  almost  feel  their  pucker  yet, 
and  I  recall  the  feeling  of  danger  when  some  older  companion 
would  utter  the  grave  warning  never  to  drink  milk  after  eating 
choke  cherries.  These  could  hardly  be  called  cultivated  choke 
cherries,  however,  and  the  trees  were  simply  spared  where  they 
had  chanced  to  spring  up. 

In  distinct  contrast  with  this  puckering  little  fruit  I  call  to 
mind  another  kind,  always  spoken  of  as  the  "tame"  choke  cherry. 
The  merits  of  this  fruit  may  have  seemed  greater  than  the  reality, 
since  none  of  it  was  to  be  found  on  our  own  farm.  Still,  any  boy 
would  call  this  fruit  good,  and  when  prepared  for  the  table,  boys 
still  call  it  good,  no  matter  what  may  be  their  age.  The  botanical 
characters  of  the  tree  appear  to  be  the  same  as  those  of  the  wild 
choke  cherry,  Prunus  Firginiana,  though  the  tree  reaches  a  larger 
size  than  that  commonly  reached  by  the  shrubs  along  the  fence 
rows.  In  this  cultivated  form  the  trunk  often  reaches  a  diameter 
of  from  four  to  six  inches,  and  the  tree  attains  a  height  of  fifteen 
to  twenty  feet. 

The  fruit  is  much  larger  than  in  any  wild  forms  which  I  have 
seen,  perhaps  ranging  from  three-eighths  to  half  an  inch  in 
diameter.  It  also  has  much  less  astringency,  and  whatever 
remains  of  this  entirely  disappears  with  cooking.  The  fruit  is 
much  used,  both  for  pies  and  sauce,  and  is  also  canned  for  winter 
use.  Any  criticism  as  to  its  quality  in  these  forms  would  be  that 

*Fred  W.  Card,  Garden  and  Forest,  x.  47  (1897). 


CARD  ON  THE  CHOKE  CHERRY        229 

it  lacks  in  pronounced  flavor  rather  than  that  it  possesses  any 
strong  or  unpleasant  ones.  It  does  not  make  a  rich  sauce,  but 
one  which  is,  on  the  whole,  very  cooling  and  agreeable. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  cook  the  fruit  in  order  to  dispel  its 
astringency.  Those  most  familiar  with  its  use  have  learned  that 
when  the  fruit  is  fully  ripe,  if  it  is  put  into  a  cloth  sack  and  rolled 
back  and  forth  or  shaken  in  a  closed  vessel,  this  quality  disap- 
pears. Treated  in  this  way  and  served  with  sugar  and  cream,  like 
peaches  or  other  fresh  fruit,  it  is  a  dish  by  no  means  to  be  passed 
by.  I  do  not  remember  that  the  fruit  was  ever  used  for  jelly,  but, 
of  course,  it  might  be  and  perhaps  is. 

There  are  certain  qualities  possessed  by  this  fruit  which  seem 
to  make  it  worthy  of  being  better  known  than  it  now  is.  In  the 
first  place,  it  ripens  at  a  time  when  other  cherries  are  gone. 
Furthermore,  the  tree  is  uniformly  productive,  seldom,  if  ever, 
failing  to  yield  a  crop.  Although  small,  the  fruit  is  borne  in 
clusters,  so  that  it  is  quickly  and  easily  picked.  It  also  has  the 
quality  of  remaining  a  long  time  on  the  tree  after  ripening,  which 
is  a  desirable  feature  for  home  use.  The  tree  is  apparently  well 
able  to  care  for  itself,  for  all  of  those  which  I  have  observed  have 
been  growing  absolutely  without  care.  It  seems,  further,  that  it 
must  have  few  serious  enemies,  otherwise  it  would  not  prove  so 
uniformly  productive.  As  to  its  longevity  I  cannot  testify. 
Among  the  trees  of  my  earliest  remembrance  several  are  gone, 
while  others,  when  I  last  saw  them,  were  still  yielding  their 
annual  crop  of  fruit. 

The  chief  objection  against  this  little  recognized  claimant 
for  admission  to  our  gardens  is  its  small  size,  and  the  conse- 
quent number  of  pits.  If  the  suggestion  of  one  ot  your  corre- 
spondents for  a  pitting  machine  were  to  take  tangible  shape,  it 
would  add  greatly  to  the  importance  of  this  fruit.  Indeed,  there 
seems  to  be  no  reason  why  such  a  machine  should  not  be  as 
readily  devised  for  cherries  of  this  size  as  for  larger  ones.  It  is 
possible  that  the  same  machine  might  answer  for  both,  for  in 
size  these  fruits  are  about  intermediate  between  the  wild  choke 
cherry  and  the  Early  Richmond.  As  commonly  served,  the  pits 
are  left  in,  and  in  that  case  it  becomes  largely  a  question  of 
leisure,  for  while  they  are  easily  removed,  it  takes  time  to 
do  it. 


230         THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

So  far  as  I  have  learned  the  history  of  this  fruit  from 
inquiries  made  in  northern  Pennsylvania  where  I  have  known 
it,  the  original  trees  were  brought  to  that  region  from  Connecti- 
cut by  one  of  the  older  settlers.  The  trees  sprout  from  the 
roots  to  some  extent,  and  these  sprouts  have  served  as  a  means 
of  distribution  in  this  farming  community,  so  that  it  is  not  at 
all  an  uncommon  fruit  in  that  immediate  vicinity.  As  to  its 
remoter  history  I  know  nothing.  Probably  it  is  merely  an 
improved  form  originally  selected  from  some  hedgerow.  The 
variation  in  size  of  fruit  which  these  wild  groups  present  cer- 
tainly lends  color  to  such  a  supposition. 

Craig  comments  on  this  article  as  follows:* 

I  was  very  much  interested  in  the  letter  of  Professor  Card, 
which  appeared  in  your  issue  of  February  3d,  on  "The  Choke 
Cherry  in  Cultivation."  I  send  you  this  note  to  corroborate  the ' 
statement  of  Professor  Card,  and  to  say  that  in  the  clay  flats  of 
the  Province  of  Quebec,  bordering  the  Richelieu  and  St. 
Lawrence  rivers,  the  choke  cherry  is  one  of  the  principal 
fruits  cultivated  by  the  French  habitant.  This  is  owing  largely 
to  the  character  of  the  soil,  which  is  of  the  pronounced  blue- 
clay  stamp  and  of  the  stickiest  and  most  impervious  type.  In 
this  region  the  choke  cherry  may  be  found  in  almost  every 
French  garden.  It  is  cultivated  mostly  in  tree  form,  and  mul- 
tiplied by  means  of  the  suckers  which  spring  up  about  the  roots. 
A  great  many  variations  occur.  Fruit  large  and  small,  light  and 
dark,  astringent  and  non- astringent,  may  be  found.  Two  years 
ago  I  found  a  tree  bearing  large  clusters  of  yellowish  white 
cherries.  I  have  sown  the  seed  of  these,  and  am  watching  the 
young  seedlings  with  interest,  hoping  that  improved  forms  may 
appear.  The  French  use  this  fruit  in  many  ways,  but  it  is  most 
largely  partaken  of  uncooked,  next  as  preserves,  while  a  smaller 
proportion  is  made  into  jelly.  The  tree  is  hardier  than  the  wild 
black  cherry,  Prunus  serotina,  and  is  found  all  through  the 
northwest  territories,  even  upon  elevated  portions  of  the  foot- 
hills of  the  eastern  Rockies. 

'Garden  and  Forest,  x.  68. 


CHOKE    CHERRIES  231 

A  periodical  has  the  following  sketch  of  improved 
choke  cherries  from  H.  Knudson,  an  experimenter  in 
Minnesota  :  "I  have  three  improved  varieties  of  choke 
cherry,  which  I  have  numbered  1,  2,  3.  They  all 
differ  from  the  common  type  of  choke  cherry,  both  in 
leaf  and  bud,  and  especially  in  fruit.  No.  3  is  the 
greatest  departure  from  the  original  type,  and  when 
its  leaves  are  fully  developed,  is  readily  distinguished 
from  any  other  sort  by  its  leaves  alone.  Nos.  1  and 
2  are  of  slender,  upright  growth,  and  attain  a  height 
of  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet.  No.  3  is  of  a  rather 
more  spreading  habit. 

"They  are  all  thrifty  growers,  so  far  free  from  dis- 
ease, and  good  annual  bearers,  producing  the  best 
fruit  of  its  class  I  have  ever  tasted,  having  very  little 
of  the  astringency  common  to  the  race. 

"There  certainly  appears  to  be  an  inclination  in 
this  fruit  to  break  away  from  the  original  type,  and 
inasmuch  as  they  possess  in  a  high  degree  those  quali- 
ties that  are  found  lacking  in  our  cultivated  varieties, 
imported  from  Europe;  viz.,  health  and  hardiness, 
may  it  not  be  best  for  us  to  turn  some  of  our  efforts 
toward  developing  the  native  cherry,  as  well  as  the 
native  plum?" 

Upon  the  plains  and  westward,  Prunus  Virginiana 
is  represented  by  Prunus  demissa,  which  has  thicker 
leaves  with  less  pronounced  teeth,  and  mostly  longer 
racemes  of  better  fruit.  Wickson  says  that  in  Cali- 
fornia "the  wild  fruit  is  used  to  some  extent  for  mar- 
malade. It  has  been  cultivated  to  some  extent  in 
places  near  its  habitat."  It  has  also  been  used  for 
stocks  for  garden  cherries.  This  western  cherry  was 
introduced  into  the  plant  trade  in  1881  by  Edward 


232         THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

Gillett,    Southwick,    Massachusetts,    as    an   ornamental 
plant. 

Primus  serotina,  the  wild  black,  or  ruin  cherry, 
the  wood  of  which  is  often  used  for  cabinet  work  and 
house  furnishing,  is  planted  for  forestry  purposes, 
as  an  ornamental  tree,  and  sparingly  for  its  fruit 


Fig.  37.    Wild  black  cherry.    Prunus  serotina.    One-third  size. 

(Fig.  37).  Infusions  of  the  bark  are  used  for  medi- 
cinal purposes,  and  the  fruit  is  often  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  cherry  brandy,  or  as  a  flavor  to  rum. 
Occasional  trees  bear  fruit  of  unusual  size  and  attrac- 
tiveness, but  it  is  doubtful  if  any  sustained  attempt 
will  ever  be  made  to  develop  it  into  a  fruit  plant. 
As  an  ornamental  plant,  the  wild  black  cherry  pos- 
sesses decided  merits  in  its  attractive  habit,  clean,  shin- 
ing foliage,  striking  white  racemes  and  handsome 
fruit.  There  are  several  cultivated  varieties  :  pendula, 
a  weeping  form,  worked  standard -high ;  variegata, 
with  leaves  more  or  less  discolored  with  yellow ; 


THE    DWARF    CHERRIES  233 

golden -leaf,  found  wild  by  Jackson  Dawsoii,  of  the 
Arnold  Arboretum,  and  somewhat  disseminated,  and 
probably  essentially  the  same  as  variegata;  carthagena, 
with  small,  short -elliptic  or  ovate -elliptic  leaves. 
Primus  serotina  ranges  through  the  eastern  and 
southern  states  as  far  west  as  Kansas. 

Prunus  Pennsylvania,  the  bird,  wild  red,  pigeon 
or  pin  cherry,  is  occasionally  cultivated  for  ornament, 
although  it  is  not  so  well  known  as  its  merits 
deserve.  It  sprouts  badly,  a  feature  which  no  doubt 
discourages  its  dissemination.  The  species  has  been 
lately  recommended  as  a  stock  for  the  common  orchard 
cherries.  The  union  with  the  orchard  cherries,  both 
sweet  and  sour,  appears  to  be  good  as  a  rule,  and  the 
species  certainly  possesses  promise  as  a  cheap  and 
hardy  stock  in  climates  too  rigorous  for  the  ordinary 
cherry  stocks.  The  fruit  is  sometimes  used  in  the 
preparation  of  cough  mixtures,  but  is  never  edible. 
It  is  generally  distributed  throughout  the  northern 
half  of  the  Union  from  the  Atlantic  to  Colorado. 

The   Dwarf  Cherry    Group 

There  is  one  well  marked  group  of  native  cherries 
which  seems  to  be  destined  to  play  an  important  part 
in  the  evolution  of  American  fruits.  This  includes 
two  or  three  bush  cherries.  They  are  just  now  begin- 
ning to  attract  the  attention  of  experimenters,  and 
already  hybrids  between  one  of  them  and  the  true 
plums  have  been  produced.  It  is  fortunate  that  the 
history  of  the  group  is  now  written,  before  it  has 
become  so  profoundly  modified  by  domestication  that 
it  is  not  necessary  to  invoke  speculation  to  determine 


BK 


^?f7/7-' 


Fig.  38.    Common  sand  cherry.    Prunus  pumila. 
Nearly  two-thirds  natural  size. 


THE    DWAEF    CHERRIES  235 

the  genesis  of  garden  forms.  And  yet  even  here, 
upon  the  very  threshold  of  their  introduction  into 
domestic  gardens,  we  shall  find  certain  points  which 
can  be  understood  or  explained  only  by  inference. 

These  dwarf  cherries  are  the  American  congeners 
of  the  ground  or  dwarf  cherry  of  Europe  and  north- 
ern Asia,  which  is  known  as  Primus  Chamcecerasus, 
and  which  is  in  cultivation  in  this  country  for  orna- 
ment. This  European  plant  is  so  like  our  own  that 
it  has  received  the  name  of  Primus  pumila— which  is 
the  American  plant  —from  nurserymen  who  have  been 
instrumental  in  disseminating  it.  There  are  two 
species  of  dwarf  cherry  which  are  concerned  in  this 
contemporaneous  evolution,  but  only  one  of  them 
seems  to  promise  much  under  domestication.  These 
are  the  sand  cherry  (Primus  pumila,  Fig.  38),  and 
the  western  dwarf  cherry  (Primus  Besseyi,  Fig.  39). 
The  history  of  this  dwarf  cherry  group  was  first  writ- 
ten by  the  present  author  less  than  four  years  ago 
("The  Native  Dwarf  Cherries;"  Bulletin  70  of  the 
Cornell  Experiment  Station),  and  it  was  upon  that 
occasion  that  the  western  plant  was  separated  from 
the  eastern  plant,  and  designated  as  Prunus  Besseyi, 
in  compliment  to  Professor  Charles  E.  Bessey,  of  the 
University  of  Nebraska,  who  has  often  called  attention 
to  the  merits  of  the  fruit. 

Of  these  two  cherries,  the  better  known  to  bota- 
nists is  the  common  dwarf  or  sand  cherry  of  the  East, 
Primus  pumila,  which  grows  chiefly  upon  sandy  and 
rocky  shores  from  northern  Maine  to  the  District  of 
Columbia  and  northwestward  to  Lake  of  the  Woods. 
It  is  abundant  among  the  Great  Lakes,  where  it  often 
grows  in  drifting  sand.  The  plant  is  strictly  erect 


236         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

when  young,  but  with  age  the  base  or  trunk  be- 
comes reclined,  and  often  covered  with  sand;  but 
the  young  growth  maintains  its  erect  character.  The 


Fis.  39. 

Western  sand  cherry. 

Prunus  Hesseyi.    Two-third 

natural  size. 


plant  has  long  and  narrow,  sharply -toothed  leaves 
and  a  willow -like  habit.  This  sand  cherry  is  variable 
in  its  wild  state,  especially  in  its  fruit.  As  a  rule,  the 
fruit  is  small  and  very  sour  and  scarcely  edible,  but 
now  and  then  one  comes  upon  a  bush  which  has  fruit 
of  pleasant  flavor,  and  as  large  as  small  Early  Rich- 


ROCKY  MOUNTAIN-  CHERRY  237 

mond  cherries.  The  illustration,  Fig.  38,  shows  the 
ordinary  type  of  fruit  of  the  sand  cherry,  nearly  natu- 
ral size.  The  fruit  is  ordinarily  black,  always  without 
bloom,  and  in  New  York  ripens  late  in  July  and  early 
in  August.  It  is  very  abundant  on  the  sand  dunes  of 
Lake  Michigan,  where  it  makes  a  shrub  from  five  to 
ten  feet  high,  and  bears  very  profusely  of  variable 
fruits.  Some  of  these  natural  varieties  are  large, 
sweet  and  palatable,  and  at  once  suggest  an  effort  to 
ameliorate  them.  The  fact  that  the  plant  grows  in 
the  lightest  of  sand  suggests  its  use  for  poor  or  arid 
regions,  which  are  present  in  most  states,  and  upon 
which  few  or  no  crops  can  be  grown  with  profit.  This 
cherry  was  advertised  in  the  Midway  Plaisance  at 
the  World's  Fair,  1893,  by  Martin  Klein  &  Co.,  of 
Detroit.  The  plant  was  said  to  have  probably  come 
from  Japan,  but  it  was  the  ordinary  Prunus  pumila 
of  our  eastern  states.  The  plant  was  recommended 
chiefly,  it  seems,  for  some  medicinal  virtue  which  was 
said  to  reside  in  its  red  roots,  although  its  merits  as 
a  fruit  plant  were  not  overlooked.  Unfortunately, 
there  are  no  named  varieties  of  this  sand  cherry  on 
the  market,  and  very  little  attention  has  been  given 
to  it  by  experimenters.  It  has  less  merit  as  a  fruit 
plant  than  the  next  species,  but  it  is  nevertheless 
worth  attempts  at  improvement. 

The  western  sand  or  bush  cherry  (P.  Besseyi)  grows 
on  the  plains  from  Manitoba  to  Kansas,  and  westward 
to  the  mountains  of  Colorado  and  Utah.  It  is  in  culti- 
vation as  the  Improved  Dwarf  Rocky  Mountain  cherry, 
introduced  in  1892  by  Charles  E.  Pennock,  of  Bell- 
vue,  Colorado.  It  has  received  attention  at  many  ex- 
periment stations.  This  species  is  a  dwarfer  and  more 


238         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

compact  and  bushy  plant  than  the  sand  cherry,  and 
it  has  a  denser  and  better  foliage.  The  cherries  are 
frequently  as  large  as  those  of  the  Early  Richmond, 
and  are  often  very  palatable.  The  fruits  are  variable 
in  shape,  from  nearly  globular  to  oblong -pointed.  It 
is  from  this  species  that  the  best  results  are  to  be 
expected  in  a  horticultural  way;  and  from  the  fact 
that  it  grows  over  such  a  great  area  of  the  interior 
plains,  I  expect. that  it  will  be  found  to  adapt  itself 
to  most  trying  soils  and  situations. 

This  dwarf  cherry  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Rocky 
Mountain  botanies,  although  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  it  is  wild  in  Colorado  and  Utah.  Dr.  C.  C. 
Parry  collected  it  in  eastern  Colorado  in  1867,  and 
apparently  the  same  was  found  somewhere  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  presumably  in  Colorado,  in  1888, 
by  S.  M.  Tracy.  It  was  collected  even  so  long  ago 
as  1839  by  Geyer,  in  Nicollet's  famous  expedition, 
being  found  on  "arid  sandy  hillsides  of  the  upper 
Missouri."  I  remember  with  great  distinctness,  that 
a  "Rocky  Mountain  cherry"  grew  in  my  father's  yard 
from  my  earliest  boyhood.  Pits  were  brought  by  a 
friend  from  Pike's  Peak  in  an  early  day.  As  the 
western  botanies  do  not  mention  any  dwarf  cherry,  I 
had  always  been  puzzled  over  this  friend  of  my 
earlier  years. 

The  horticultural  history  of  the  plant  seems  to 
begin  with  A.  S.  Fuller's  "Small  Fruit  Culturist," 
1867.  Mr.  Fuller  mentions  having  collected  the  sand 
cherry  (the  true  Primus  pumila)  upon  Hat  Island,  in 
Lake  Huron,  in  1846.  But  he  also  had  this  western 
species.  "A  few  years  ago,"  he  writes,  "through  the 
kindness  of  Professor  George  Thurber,  I  received  some 


WESTERN    SAND    CHERRY  239 

cherry  seed  from  Utah  Territory."  He  raised  plants 
from  these  seeds,  and  noticed  that  the  plants  were  dif- 
ferent from  those  which  he  had  found  upon  Hat 
Island.  "I  do  not  consider  this  cherry  of  any  par- 
ticular value  as  it  is  found  in  its  normal  condition," 
he  continues  ;  "  but  if  we  could  obtain  an  improved 
variety  of  a  similar  growth,  and  as  hardy  and  pro- 
ductive, it  would  certainly  be  a  great  acquisition. 
There  is  no  reason  why  this  should  not  be  accom- 
plished, for,  as  I  have  said,  it  is  nearly  related  to  our 
cultivated  varieties,  and  a  hybrid  can,  and  probably 
will  be,  produced  between  them."  Now,  after  the 
lapse  of  a  quarter  of  a  century,  the  fulfillment  of  this 
generous  prophecy  is  in  sight. 

In  1888,  Gipson,  in  "Horticulture  by  Irrigation," 
speaks  of  the  wild  native  Colorado  dwarf  cherry  as 
bearing  a  fruit  "especially  valuable  for  pies  and  pre- 
serves, and  is  often  pleasant  to  eat  from  the  hand. 
It  is  wonderfully  productive,  and  will  survive  all 
changes  and  vicissitudes  of  the  most  exacting  cli- 
mate." In  1889,  Professor  C.  E.  Bessey  called  the 
attention  of  the  American  Pomological  Society  to  it 
as  "a  promising  new  fruit  from  the  plains"  of  Ne- 
braska. It  is  only  within  the.  last  five  or  six  years, 
however,  that  the  sand  cherries  have  come  into  actual 
cultivation  for  their  fruit,  although  as  ornamental 
plants  they  have  been  sold  many  years.  Professor  C. 
A.  Keffer  described  a  dwarf  cherry  in  1891,  in  a  bul- 
letin of  the  South  Dakota  Experiment  Station,  and  a 
little  later  Professor  Green,  of  Minnesota,  did  the  same. 
Both  men  had  grown  it,  and  found  it  to  be  variable 
and  promising.  In  South  Dakota  plants  set  three 
years  bore  heavily  the  second  and  third  years.  The 


240         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

"fruit  begins  to  ripen  the  first  week  in  August.  The 
cherries  on  most  of  the  bushes  were  ripe  by  August 
20,  and  some  few  last  into  September,  showing  a  sea- 
son of  from  four  to  six  weeks  in  a  seedling  planta- 
tion. Classifying  roughly  according  to  the  fruit,  we 
find  yellow  and  black -fruited  sorts.  The  yellow- 
fruited  sorts,  as  a  class,  are  earlier  than  the  blacks, 
and  of  rather  better  flavor.  They  are  greenish  yellow 
when  fully  ripe,  and  vary  in  size,  the  largest  being 
about  the  size  of  a  medium  Early  Richmond  cherry." 
The  fruits  vary  greatly  in  flavor,  some  being  entirely 
worthless,  while  others  were  acceptable  for  some  culi- 
nary purposes.  "While  of  little  value  when  the 
quality  of  the  fruit  is  considered,  it  would  seem  that 
these  dwarf  cherries  should  give  rise  to  a  race  espe- 
cially adapted  to  the  Northwest.  They  have  withstood 
all  the  dry  weather  of  the  past  three  years  without 
injury,  and  they  have  been  covered  with  bloom  for 
two  seasons,  though  unprotected  during  the  winter." 
Professor  Green,  in  Minnesota,  had  "fruit  varying  in 
color  from  quite  light  red  to  almost  black,  and  in 
form  from  round -oblate  to  oval.  The  largest  fruit 
we  have  is  oval,  with  three -fourths  inch  and  five- 
eighths  inch  diameters,  while  one  other  is  round  and 
eleven -sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  diameter ;  this  is 
nearly  as  large  as  the  Early  Richmond  cherry.  The 
quality  varies  greatly,  some  being  a  mild,  not  dis- 
agreeable subacid,  others  insipid,  and  still  others  very 
astringent.  *  *  *  When  cooked  it  makes  a  nice 
sauce.  The  period  of  ripening  varies  from  July  24 
to  August  15.  A  peculiarity  of  the  plant  is  that  all 
the  fruit  on  any  plant  is  ripe  at  nearly  the  same  time, 
and  can  all  be  gathered  at  one  picking.  *  *  *  I 


PENNOCK'S   DWARF  CHERRY  241 

consider  this  cherry  not  only  of  prospective  value 
for  its  fruit,  but  of  immediate  value  as  a  hardy 
shrub." 

Professor  Budd  and  others  suggest  its  use  as  a 
dwarf  stock  for  cherries,  while  it  is  found  to  grow 
well,  for  a  time,  at  least,  upon  the  peach.  Finally, 
Charles  E.  Pennock,  of  Bellvue,  Colorado,  introduced 
the  "Improved  Dwarf  Rocky  Mountain  cherry,"  a 
description  and  history  of  which  follow,  made  in  1892, 
by  the  present  writer,  in  his  "Cultivated  Native  Plums 
and  Cherries"  (Bulletin  38,  Cornell  Experiment  Sta- 
tion) : 

Mr.  Pennock's  "Improved  Dwarf  Rocky  Moun- 
tain cherry"  is  the  only  named  cultivated  form,  so 
far  as  I  know,  of  pure  Prunus  Besseyi.  His  first 
account  of  this  fruit,  as  given  in  the  "American 
Farm  and  Horticulturist"  for  April,  1892,  is  as  fol- 
lows :  "I  have  never  seen  a  bush  more  than  four  feet 
high.  They  should  be  planted  about  eight  feet  apart, 
as  they  grow  on  the  ground.  The  first  I  ever  saw  or 
heard  of  it  was  in  1878.  I  was  making  and  floating 
railroad  ties  down  the  Cache  la  Poudre  river,  in  the 
mountains,  about  eight  miles  from  my  present  farm. 
I  thought  at  that  time  they  were  the  most  valuable 
fruit  I  ever  saw  growing  wild.  I  got  a  start  of  these 
cherries,  and  have  been  improving  them  by  planting 
seed  (pits)  of  the  best  fruit.  They  vary  somewhat  in 
size,  flavor,  and  season  of  ripening,  and  are  capable 
of  great  improvement.  I  have  known  only  one  bush 
that  was  not  good  in  my  experience  with  it.  We 
have  nearly  all  kinds  of  fruit,  but  we  like  the  cherry 
to  eat  out  of  hand  when  fully  ripe  better  than  any  of 
its  season.  It  ripens  a  month  later  than  Morello — 


242         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

in  fact,  I  picked  them  off  the  bushes  and  exhibited 
at  our  county  fair  September  23,  24  and  28,  where 
they  attracted  a  great  deal  of  attention.  I  have 
learned  since  I  have  had  these  cherries  that  other 
residents  of  the  county  had  them  in  their  gardens 
more  than  twenty  years  ago,  and  have  them  yet,  so 
I  do  not  claim  to  be  the  discoverer  of  them,  but  I 
believe  I  am  the  first  to  improve  them  and  make 
their  value  known  to  the  public.  They  are  very 
scarce  in  their  wild  state  here.  There  are  two  kinds 
of  them — one  that  grows  outside  the  mountains  in  the, 
foot-hills,  and  is  in  every  way  inferior  to  the  one 
that  grows  near  the  bank  of  the  Cache  la  Poudr-5 
river.  There  are  not  2,000  of  these  cherries  of  inins 
in  existence.  I  could  sell  wagon  loads  of  these 
cherries  at  10  cents  per  quart.  I  have  kept  200  of 
the  young  trees,  which  I  intend  to  send  to  respon- 
sible parties  who  desire  them  for  testing.  The  young 
trees  I  have  are  one  year  from  seed.  I  have  had 
them  loaded  down  at  two  years  of  age  from  seed. 
They  have  never  failed  to  bear  fruit  every  year ;  late 
frosts  never  affect  them ;  they  are  entirely  hardy, 
having  endured  40  degrees  below  zero  without  injury ; 
ripen  when  all  others  are  gone ;  would  grace  any 
lawn  when  in  blossom  ;  are  easier  pitted  than  other 
cherries." 

Bessey  writes  as  follows  of  the  merits  of  this 
cherry:*  "No  native  fruit  appears  more  promising 
than  this.  Even  in  a  wild  state  it  is  very  prolific, 
and  when  fully  ripe  it  is  edible  in  the  uncooked  state. 
The  astringency  which  is  present  in  the  unripe  fruits 
almost  or  entirely  disappears  at  maturity.  Plants 

*Rept.  Nebr.  Hort.  Soc.  1895,  168. 


PRUNUS    BESSEYI  243 

appear  to  differ  a  good  deal  in  the  amount  of  astrin- 
gency,  as  well  as  in  the  size  and  shape  of  the  cherries 
which  they  bear.  In  many  parts  of  the  state  the 
sand  cherry  has  been  transplanted  to  the  garden  or 
orchard.  Wherever  this  has  been  done  the  results 
have  been  encouraging.  The  plants  become  larger, 
and  the  cherries  are  larger  and  more  abundant.  They 
root  freely  from  layers,  and  hence  are  propagated  with 
the  greatest  ease.  My  studies  of  this  interesting 
native  cherry,  supplemented  by  the  testimony  of 
numerous  observers  in  all  parts  of  the  state  where  it 
grows,  lead  me  to  the  conclusion  that  we  have  here 
a  fruit  which  needs  only  a  few  years  of  cultivation 
and  selection  to  yield  us  a  most  valuable  addition  to 
our  small -fruit  gardens.  It  has  recently  attracted  the 
attention  of  cultivators  in  the  states  eastward  as  a 
promising  stock  upon  which  to  graft  or  bud  some  of 
the  more  tender  varieties  of  the  cultivated  cherries  of 
the  Old  World." 

The  efforts  to  improve  Prunus  Besseyi  by  means 
of  crossing  have  been  made  chiefly  in  Minnesota. 
Professor  S.  B.  Green,  of  the  Minnesota  Experiment 
Station,  writes  (1894)  that  he  has  "raised  probably  five 
thousand  seedlings  in  the  last  four  years,  and  has  seen 
many  seedlings  on  the  grounds  of  the  Jewell  Nursery 
Co.,  at  Lake  City,  Minn.  Among  these  I  have  seen 
many  that  produce  very  good  fruit,  but  I  have  not 
yet  selected  the  one  which  I  shall  propagate.  I  have 
attempted  quite  a  number  of  hybrids  between  it  and 
Prunus  Americana,  but  have  so  far  failed  to  get  one 
that  I  felt  sure  represented  both  species.  It  is  a  very 
good  stock  for  the  P.  Americana.  It  suckers  very 
freely  the  first  season,  but  when  the  graft  or  bud  gets 


244         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

a  good  start  there  is  but  little  trouble  from  this 
cause.  The  Russian  cherries  bud  on  it  fairly  well, 
but  do  poorly  when  grafted.  I  think  the  round  fruits 
are  much  more  often  of  good  quality  than  those  hav- 
ing a  pointed  apex."  Mr.  C.  W.  H.  Heideman,  of 
New  Ulm,  Minnesota,  has  been  at  work  about  ten 
years  in  endeavoring  to  secure  crosses  of  Prunus 
hortulana  (as  the  Miner)  upon  Prunus  Besseyi,  with 
good  success.  He  informs  me  that  all  his  pollinations 
are  made  upon  emasculated  and  protected  flowers. 
He  has  made  some  five  hundred  distinct  crosses,  some 
of  them  with  pollen  of  Prunus  Americana,  but  the 
issues  of  this  latter  combination  "are  all  very  weak, 
and  I  am  afraid,"  he  writes,  "that  they  will  not  pull 
through."  It  is  yet  too  early  to  determine  what  the 
practical  results  of  these  crosses  may  be,  but  I  am 
looking  for  something  useful  for  the  Northwest  and 
for  many  of  the  dry  lands  of  the  East.  A  hybrid  of 
these  species  is  shown  natural  size  in  Fig.  40.  It 
is  an  oblong  dull  red  plum,  with  rather  meaty  and 
sweet  flesh,  a  sourish  skin,  and  a  rather  large  stone. 
The  Compass  cherry,  being  introduced  by  H.  Knud- 
son,  is  said  to  be  a  hybrid  of  this  cherry  with 
Prunus  hortulana* 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  of  these  derivatives 
of  the  western  dwarf  cherry  is  the  variety  known 
as  the  "Utah  Hybrid  cherry"  (Fig.  41).  All  botani- 
cal evidence  goes  to  show  that  the  plant  is  a  hy- 
brid of  Prunus  Bessnji  and  the  sand  plum,  P.  Wat- 
soni;  and  its  history  t  bears  out  this  statement. 

*Consult  Minn.  Horticulturist,  Apl.  1896,  132,  and  Oct.  1896,  416. 
tPirst  given  in  "The   Native   Dwarf  Cherries,"  Bull.  70,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta., 
1894.    By  Dieck,  the  plant  has  been  named  Prunus  Utahensis. 


HYBRID    CHERRIES  245 

The  Black  Utah  Hybrid  cherry,— which,  I  think, 
is  the  one  now  in  cultivation,  —  originated  with 
J.  E.  Johnson,  now  deceased,  at  Wood  River,  Ne- 
braska, on  or  near  the  Platte  river,  probably  some 


Fig.  40.    Hybrid  of  the  western  sand  cherry  with  the  Miner  plum. 
Natural  size. 

time  in  the  sixties.  Mr.  Johnson  grew  native  dwarf 
cherries  and  sand  plums  in  his  garden.  Seeds  of 
these  cherries  were  sown.  Only  one  tree  of  the  origi- 
nal batch  of  cherry  seedlings  was  considered  worthy 
of  attention,  and  this  tree  was  propagated.  Mr. 
Johnson  soon  afterwards  moved  to  Utah,  from 
whence,  it  appears,  he  distributed  this  variety  as  the 
Utah  Hybrid  cherry.  There  is  no  species  of  plum 
or  cherry  known  to  which  this  Utah  Hybrid  can 


246         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

be   referred,    and   it    is   probable 
that   it   is  a  natural   hybrid   be- 
tween   the    cherries    and    plums 
growing   in   Mr.  Johnson's    gar- 
den.    It  is   an   almost   exact  in- 
termediate  between   the    western 
dwarf  cherry  and  the  sand  plum. 
The    fruits     are    cherry -like    in 
form    and    in    the    character    of 
the     pit,    but    they     have     the 
"bloom"   of  the   plum.      The 
illustration   shows   the    Utah 
Hybrid,    half     natural     size, 
as  grown  by  myself. 
It    is    a  very    hand- 
some   fruit    of    deep 
mahogany  color,  with 
a      light      plum -like 
bloom,  ripening  about 
the   first    of    August 
at  Ithaca.    The  qual- 
ity   is     poor.        The 
flesh     is     soft      and 
juicy,      and       rather 
pleasant,       but        it 
lacks  body ;    and  the 
skin,    in    our    speci- 
mens, is  very  bitter. 
The    pit  is  very  like 
that  of   Prunus  Bes- 
The  plant  is  a 
tree -like    bush   three 
or    four     feet    high, 


Fig.  41.     Utah  hybrid  cherry.    S€ 
Half  natural  size. 


UTAH  HYBRID  CHERRY  247 

with  a  tendency,  evidently  derived  from  the  sand  plum, 
to  make  a  zigzag  growth  of  shoots.  The  foliage  has 
every  appearance  of  being  a  combination  of  the  dwarf 
cherry  and  the  sand  plum.  The  leaves  are  slightly 
trough -shaped,  or  conduplicate,  as  they  hang  on  the 
plant,  while  those  of  the  sand  plum  are  strongly 
conduplicate,  and  those  of  the  cherry  are  perfectly 
flat.  In  outline,  the  leaves  are  oblong -ovate.  They 
are  dull  glossy  above  and  much  reticulated  be- 
neath, with  rather  coarse,  obtuse  serratures,  and  a 
firm,  thick  texture. 

The  Utah  Hybrid  cherry,  as  I  have  grown  it, 
appears  to  possess  no  immediate  value,  because  of  the 
poorness  of  its  fruit ;  but  the  tree  is  hardy  and  pro- 
ductive, and  it  indicates  that  there  may  be  combina- 
natious  of  dwarf  plums  and  cherries  which  shall  have 
distinct  horticultural  merits,  particularly  for  dry  or 
arid  soils  and  trying  situations.  It  also  shows  how 
evanescent  is  the  line  of  demarcation  between  the 
cherry  and  the  plum. 

Retrospect 

We  have  now  traced  in  some  detail  the  curious 
and  intricate  history  of  the  evolution  of  cultivated 
varieties  of  our  native  plums  and  cherries.  We  have 
seen  that,  although  the  varieties  already  named  and 
impressed  into  domestication  number  something  like 
two  hundred,  the  greater  part  of  them  have  been 
merely  fortuitous  or  accidental  variations,  and  that  the 
history  of  even  the  oldest  of  them  runs  back  scarcely 
more  than  three -fourths  of  a  century,  whereas  most 
of  them  are  very  recent.  Five  accepted  species  or 


248         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

types  of  native  plums  and  one  or  two  of  native  cher- 
ries have  entered  into  this  domesticated  flora,  and 
hybrids  have  appeared  not  only  between  native  plums, 
but  probably  between  native  and  foreign  species,  and 
between  the  native  plum  and  the  peach  ;  and  hybrids 
have  even  arisen  between  the  plum  and  the  cherry.  Of 
late  years,  too,  another  and  distinct  species  of  plum  has 
been  introduced  from  Japan.  It  is  attracting  attention 
from  fruit-growers  in  every  part  of  the  Union,  and  is 
slowly  adapting  itself  to  the  new  environments,  and 
it  must  soon  meet  and  blend  with  some  of  the  native 
species.  There  are  already  reports  that  such  nuptials 
have  been  made.  A  half  dozen  native  species  not 
yet  brought  into  cultivation  are  inviting  the  attention 
of  the  experimenter.  In  the  meantime,  the  interest  in 
commercial  plum  culture  is  increasing  rapidly,  and 
the  enterprise  is  each  year  carried  into  new  and 
untried  regions.  Of  all  the  books  which  have  been 
written  upon  American  horticulture,  not  one  of  any 
consequence  has  been  given  wholly  to  the  plum.  To 
the  student,  our  native  and  domestic  plum  flora  will 
long  remain  the  most  inviting,  perplexed  and  virgin 
field  in  American  pomology. 


IV 

THE    NATIVE    APPLES 

FIVE  types  of  native  apples  are  known  in  the  United 
States.  These  are,  the  common  wild  crab  of  the 
northeastern  states  and  Canada,  the  narrow- leaved 
crab  of  the  middle  and  southern  states,  the  prairie- 
states  crab,  the  Soulard  crab,  and  the  Oregon  crab. 
None  of  these  are  of  sufficient  merit  to  have  attracted 
much  attention  for  their  fruits,  from  the  early  settlers, 
although  many  early  narrators  mention  them.  John 
Smith  saw  "some  few  Crabs,  but  very  small  and 
bitter,"  upon  coming  to  Virginia.  Strachey  records  : 
"  Crabb  trees  there  be,  but  the  fruict  small  and  bitter, 
howbeit,  being  graffed  upon,  soone  might  we  have  of 
our  owne  apples  of  any  kind,  peares,  and  what  ells." 
The  crabs  of  the  eastern  states  are  mentioned  and 
described  by  many  early  naturalists  and  botanists,  but 
these  records  contain  so  little  of  prophecy  for  the  fruit, 
or  even  interest  in  it  for  food  purposes,  that  we  do 
not  need  to  examine  them.  The  European  apples  were 
so  much  superior,  and  thrived  so  well  upon  introduc- 
tion into  the  New  World,  that  the  wild  crabs  offered 
little  reward  in  the  comparison. 

What  man  neglected  to  perform  for  himself,  nature 
did  for  him,  for  there  have  now  come  into  existence 
certain  named  and  worthy  varieties  of  apples  which 
have  sprung  from  the  native  stock.  Before  enquiring 
of  the  history  of  these  varieties,  however,  it  will  be 

249 


250         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

necessary  to  take  a  brief  survey  of  the  various  indige- 
nous stocks. 


The   Indigenous   Species 

We  will  first  simplify  our  account  by  disposing  of 
the  Oregon  crab,  since  it  is  not  in  cultivation  for  its 
fruit.  This  species  ranges  from  Alaska  to  northern 
California.  It  is  the  largest -growing  species  of  native 
apple,  making  a  tree  twenty -five  to  forty  feet  high.  It 
received  its  name,  Pyrus  rivularis — the  "creek  Pyrus" 
— from  Douglas  in  1833.  The  species  is  more  like 
the  Old  World  apples,  especially  the  Siberian  crab, 
than  our  other  indigenous  apples.  The  leaves  are 
ovate  and  apple -like  in  shape,  usually  smooth,  and 
only  rarely  notched  or  lobed,  but  uniformly  finely 
serrate.  The  little  fruits  are  oblong,  three -fourths 
inch  or  less  long,  with  a  scant,  dryish  flesh,  and  yel- 
low or  reddish  in  color,  ripening  in  September  and 
October.  The  calyx  falls  before  the  fruit  is  fully  ripe, 
as  it  does  in  the  Siberian  crab.  According  to  Sar- 
gent, "the  fruit,  which  has  a  pleasant  subacid  flavor 
when  fully  ripe,  is  gathered  and  consumed  by  the 
Indians."  He  quotes  Robert  Brown  as  follows:  "The 
fruit  of  the  crab -apple  (Pyrus  rivularis)  is  prepared 
for  food  by  being  wrapt  in  leaves  and  preserved  in 
bags  all  winter.  When  the  apples  have  become  sweet, 
they  are  cooked  by  digging  a  hole  in  the  ground, 
covering  it  over  thickly  with  green  leaves  and  a  layer 
of  earth  or  sand,  and  then  kindling  a  fire  above 
them."  Wickson,  in  his  "California  Fruits,"  speaks 
of  specimens  of  this  crab  tree  "with  bodies  one  foot 
in  diameter,  with  spreading  tops,  loaded  with  small, 


WILD    CRABS  251 

oval  fruit,  of  a  golden  color  when  ripe."  He  adds 
that  the  fruit  of  this  Oregon  crab  "is  eaten  by  Indians, 
and  was  used  in  early  times  for  jelly  making  by  the 
white  settlers." 

The  wild  apples  of  the  Mississippi  valley  and 
eastward  have  usually  been  distinguished  into  two 
species,  the  Pyrus  coronaria  or  garland  crab  of  the 
North,  and  the  Pyrus  angustifolia  or  narrow -leaved 
crab  of  the  South.  Within  the  last  generation  or  two, 
botanists  and  experimenters  have  occasionally  called 
attention  to  these  crabs  as  the  possible  parents  of 
improved  varieties,  but  nothing  very  definite  appears 
to  have  been  put  on  record  until  the  present  writer 
made  an  essay  in  this  direction  a  few  years  ago 
("American  Garden,"  August,  1891),  in  which  two 
new  species  or  types  of  Pyrus  were  proposed,  and  in 
which  an  effort  was  made  to  discover  the  botanical 
features  of  certain  cultivated  forms  of  them.  At  this 
point  we  must  examine  the  botanical  features  of  the 
two  old-time  species  of  eastern  crabs,  and  of  the 
prairie  states  crab,  which  was  there  proposed  as  a 
distinct  species. 

1.  The  wild  or  garland  crab  of  the  northeastern 
states  (Pyrus  coronaria,  Linnaeus).  Leaves  short- 
ovate  to  triangular-ovate,  sharply  cut-serrate  and  often 
3-lobed,  thin  and  hard,  smooth,  on  long  and  slender 
but  stiff  and  hard,  smooth  petioles  ;  flowers  large  (over 
an  inch  across),  on  long  (1%  to  2  inches)  and  slender, 
stiff,  smooth  or  very  nearly  smooth  pedicels,  the  calyx 
smooth,  or  very  nearly  so,  on  the  outside.  A  small, 
slow- growing  and  spreading,  thorny  tree,  growing  in 
glades  from  New  York  to  Michigan,  and  even  to  Mis- 
souri and  Kansas  and  southwards,  probably,  to  Georgia. 


252         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

It  is  in  cultivation  as  an  ornamental  plant  ("  Pyrus 
coronaria  odorata"),  but  it  appears  never  to  have  been 
grown  for  the  economic  uses  of  its  fruit.  The  fruit 
is  always  distinctly  flattened  endwise,  clear  yellowish 
green  at  maturity,  without  spots  or  dots  ;  stem  very 
slender,  but  varying  in  length,  the  cavity  small  and 
regular;  basin  (at  apex  of  fruit)  symmetrical,  rather 
deep  but  broad,  and  marked  by  regular  corrugations, 
the  calyx  small  and  smooth.  Various  aspects  of  this 
crab  apple  are  shown  in  Figs.  42-45. 

2.  The  wild  or  narrow -leaved  crab  of  the  Southern 
states  (Pyrus  angustifolia,  Aiton).  Leaves  lanceolate- 
oblong  to  elliptic,  small,  varying  from  almost  entire 
in  f,he  inflorescence  to  bluntly  and  mostly  sparsely 
dentate -serrate,  obtuse  or  bluntish  (only  rarely  half- 
acute),  stiff  and  firm  and  polished  above,  as  if  half- 
evergreen,  on  short  (usually  an  inch  or  less)  and 
hard,  smooth  or  nearly  smooth  petioles  ;  flowers  habit- 
ually smaller  than  in  the  last,  on  very  slender  but 
shorter,  smooth  pedicels,  the  calyx  smooth,  or  essen- 
tially so,  on  the  outside.  A  small,  hard-wooded  tree, 
growing  from  Pennsylvania  to  Tennessee  (and  south- 
ern Illinois?)  and  Florida.  Dr.  Gattinger,  of  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.,  writes  me  that  the  species  is  "confined 
to  the  siliceous  sub -carboniferous  formation,  and  I 
have  never  seen  it  on  the  silurian  limestones  around 
Nashville."  Pyrus  angustifolia  is  more  easily  confused 
with  P.  coronaria  than  the  western  forms  of  crabs  are. 
The  best  character  of  distinction  between  P.  angusti- 
folia and  P.  coronaria,  it  seems  to  me,  is  the  thick, 
half -evergreen,  shining  leaves  of  the  former— a  char- 
acter which  appears  to  have  been  omitted  in  the  later 
books.  I  presume  that  it  was  this  character  of  leaves 


• 


Fig.  42.    The  garland  crab.    I'yrut  corvnaria. 


NATIVE    CRABS  255 

which  led  Desfontaine  to  call  the  species  Mains  sem- 
jH-ri'irens,  "evergreen  crab  apple."  Pyrus  angustifolia 
is  thus  characterized  by  Torrey  and  Gray  in  1848,  and 
the  description  is  excellent:  "Leaves  lanceolate-oblong, 
often  acute  at  base,  dentate -serrate  or  almost  entire, 
glabrous,  shining  above."  It  is  said  that  the  styles 


Fig.  44.     Pynis  eoronaria  from  Pennsylvania.    Nearly  natural  size. 


in  Pyrus  angustifolia  are  distinct,  while  they  are  united 
in  P.  coronaria,  but  this  character  does  not  hold.  The 
coherence  of  the  styles  in  all  these  wild  crabs,  as  in 
the  apple  itself,  is  very  variable,  and  it  seems  to  me 
to  be  entirely  unreliable  as  a  distinguishing  mark. 
These  species  have  been  confused  from  the  earliest 


256         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FEUITS 


times.  For  example,  Michaux  left  two  specimens  of 
Pyrus  angustifolia  in  his  herbarium  at  Paris,  one 
of  which  is  ticketed  Mains 
angustifolia  and  the  other 
Mains  coronaria,— the  latter 
said  to  grow  in  "Pennsyl- 
vania et  Virginia." 

Pyrus         coronaria 
and      P.      angustifolia 
are  essentially  smooth 
species,  and  the  young 
wood     is     dense     and 
hard.         The      young 
leaves       and 
"<  shoots  are  some- 
Mimes       thinly 
^  -__     (  hairy,  but   they 
/    soon         become 
'<        smooth.       The 
western      types      are 
essentially   pubescent 
species,     and      the 
young       growth       is 
thicker    and    softer  ; 
and    the    pubescence 
is  floccose  or  woolly, 
and  persists  upon  the 
under  surface  of   the 
leaves  throughout  the 
season. 

3.  The  prairie  states  crab  (Pyrus  loensis,  Bailey, 
Ainer.  Gard.  xii.  473.  Pyrus  coronaria,  var.  loensis, 
Wood,  Cl.  Bk.  Botany,  333,  1860).  Leaves  rather 


Fig.  45. 
Leaf  of  Pyrus  coronaria. 


NATIVE    CRABS 


257 


large,  firm  in  texture  and  white  -  pubescent  beneath,  on 
stout  and  rather  thick,  pubescent  petioles  (1  to  1% 
inches  long) ,  various  in  shape  :  those  in  the  flower- 
clusters  are  oblong  and  blunt  and  marked  above  the 
middle  by  notches,  while  the  mature  leaves  range  from 
elliptic -oblong  to  ovate- 
oblong,  and  are  irregu- 
larly and  mostly  bluntly- 
toothed,  and  bearing  a 
few  nothes  or  right- 
angled  lobes  or  teeth 


Fig.  46.     Leaves  of  Pyrus  loensis. 


(See  Fig.  46) ;  flowers  nearly  or  quite  as  large  as  in 
P.  coronaria,  on  rather  slender  but  white -pubescent 
pedicels  an  inch  or  so  long  (Fig.  47).  A  small  tree, 
growing  in  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Mis- 
souri and  Kansas..  The  fruit  is  characteristically  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  Pyrus  coronaria,  and  these  differ- 
ences are  well  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustra- 
tions. The  fruits  of  this  species  (Fig.  48)  are  oblong, 
dull,  rather  heavy  green,  with  many  light -colored  dots 
Q 


258    THE  EVOLUTION  OF  OUR  NATIVE  FRUITS 

in  the  skin  ;  stem  short  and  thick  as  compared  with 
fruits  of  P.  coronaria,  the  cavity  mostly  oblique  or 
unsymmetrical ;  basin  variable,  narrower  and  shallower 
than  in  the  other,  with  less  uniform  corrugations,  the 


Fig.  47.    Flower  cluster  of  Pyrus  loensis. 

calyx  closed  and  pubescent.  The  fruit  is  generally 
more  angular  and  irregular  in  shape  than  that  of 
P.  coronaria,  averaging  larger,  and  often  has  a  greasy 
feel ;  not  so  handsome  as  the  other. 

The  only  description  of  this  prairie  states  crab,  as 


PYRUS    IOENSIS  259 

distinct  from  the  eastern  crab,  which  I  have  ever  found, 
is  Wood's  characterization  of  as  it  P.  coronaria,  var. 
loensis,  in  1860,  as  follows:  "Lvs.  (when  young), 
pedicels  and  calyx  densely  tomentous.  Lvs.  ovate  and 
oblong,  distinctly  lobed  ;  (fr.  not  seen).  Sent  from 
Iowa  by  Dr.  Cousens."  Pyrus  loensis  is  a  variable 
species.  The  leaves  on  young  and  strong  shoots 
are  sometimes  triangular-ovate,  but  the  blunt  teeth, 
thick  petioles  and  white  tomentum  distinguish  them 
from  P.  coronaria,  the  leaves  of  which  upon  similar 
shoots  are  very  sharp-toothed.  The  flower -clusters  and 
accompanying  foliage,  barring  the  white  pubescence, 
are  often  much  like  P.  angusti folia.  It  is  not  improb- 
able that  it  may  be  found  to  simulate  P.  coronaria 
upon  its  eastern  limits.  I  am  convinced  that  this 
prairie  states  crab  is  sufficiently  distinct  from  the  east- 
ern crab  to  be  held  as  a  valid  species.  It  has  a  nor- 
mal range,  marked  technical  botanical  features,  and 
a  very  distinct  fruit.  Figs.  46-48  are  characteristic. 

In  their  native  and  unmixed  state,  the  fruits  of 
these  wild  crabs  offer  little  promise  to  the  horticul- 
turist. In  newly  settled  localities  they  are  sometimes 
gathered  for  winter  use,  but  they  are  then  used  in 
cookery,  although  I  have  known  of  the  fruit  of  Pyrus 
coronaria  being  buried  until  spring,  when  it  becomes 
fairly  edible,  when  other  fruit  is  not  to  be  had.  Cider 
has  also  been  made  from  these  wild  crabs.  Sargent 
says  of  Pyrus  coronaria  :  "  The  fruit  is  used  for  pre- 
serves, and  is  often  manufactured  into  cider;"  and 
the  same  remark  is  made  of  P.  angusttfolfa.  Hum- 
phrey Marshall,  over  a  hundred  years  ago,  speaks  of 
the  fruit  of  Pyrus  coronaria  as  "small,  hard,  roundish, 
umbilicated,  and  extremely  acid.  It  is  frequently 


THE    SOULARD    CRAB  261 

used  for  conserves,  &c."  But  if  the  native  crabs  lack 
in  attractive  qualities  of  fruit,  they  make  good  the 
deficiency  in  beauty  and  fragrance  of  flowers.  They 
are  amongst  the  choicest  of  native  small  tress  for 
ornamental  planting.  There  is  also  a  double -flowered 
form  (probably  of  Pyrus  loensis) ,  introduced  to  the 
trade  in  1893  as  "BechtePs  Double -flowering  Crab." 

Amelioration   Has    Begun 

If  the  forms  or  types  of  native  crabs  ended  here, 
the  matter  would  be  simple  enough  ;  but  there  are 
certain  large -fruited  kinds  which  have  been  picked 
up  in  the  Mississippi  valley  arid  introduced  into  cul- 
tivation, and  three  or  four  of  them  have  received  trade 
names.  We  must  now  make  an  effort  to  understand 
their  botanical  features  and  histories.  The  most 
important  of  these  crabs,  which  have  been  found  in 
the  wild,  is  the  Soulard  {Figs.  49,  50).  This  Soulard 
crab  has  been  much  talked  about,  and  yet  there  ap- 
pears to  be  little  definite  information  concerning  it, 
particularly  in  reference  to  its  botanical  characters. 
The  fruit  was  named  for  Hon.  James  G.  Soulard, 
of  Galena,  Illinois,  who  introduced  it.  The  follow- 
ing account  of  its  origin  was  given  before  the  Hor- 
ticultural Society  of  Northern  Illinois  by  Mr.  Soulard 
in  1869  ;  and  the  same  facts  are  also  given  by  him 
in  "Gardener's  Monthly,"  x.  199  (July,  1868) : 

"At  the  request  of  the  Horticultural  Society  of  Jo 
Daviess  county,  111.,  I  proceed  to  give  a  statement  of 
this  remarkable  hybrid.  It  originated  on  a  farm 
about  twelve  miles  from  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  where  stood 
an  American  crab  thicket  not  enclosed,  near  the  farm 


262         THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

house,  about  25  years  since.  The  thicket  was  cut 
down  and  the  ground  cultivated  some  two  or  three 
years ;  culture  being  discontinued,  another  crab 
thicket  sprang  up,  and  when  bearing,  one  tree  (the 


Fig.  49.     Soulard  crab. 

Pyrus   Soulardi.      Five-eighths 

natural  size. 


identical  kind  now  called  Soulard  crab)  was  dis- 
covered. The  fruit  astonished  me  by  its  remarkably 
large  size,  being  sent  to  me  by  a  friend  whose 
widowed  mother,  Mrs.  Freeman  Delauriere,  occupied 
the  farm.  I  immediately  propagated  by  grafting  upon 
crab  stock  and  upon  our  common  seedlings.  Upon 


THE    SOULARD    CRAB  263 

both  stocks  producing  the  same  fruit  and  thriving 
admirably,  I  disseminated  it  among  my  friends  as  a 
very  desirable  fruit,  having  nothing  of  the  Siberian 
type.  It  is  to  me  conclusive  that  this  crab  is  the  off- 
spring of  an  accidental  hybridization  of  the  wild  crab 
by  our  common  apple.  The  tree,  its  foliage,  habit, 
increased  size  of  fruit  and  tree,  and  decreased  acer- 
bity, convince  me  it  is  a  hybrid,  and  as  far  as  I  know, 
the  first  instance  of  such  cross. 

"I  consider  it  the  most  desirable  of  all  crabs  that 
I  have  seen.  Adding  sweetness,  it  is  delicious  baked. 
It  makes  most  excellent  preserves,  being  large  enough 
to  be  quartered,  and  unsurpassed  by  any  crab  for 
jams,  jellies,  etc.,  imparting  its  delicate  taste  and 
rich  crab  aroma.  The  largest  have  measured  over 
seven  inches  around.  In  form,  color  and  smell  it  is 
like  the  common  crab,  and  it  hangs  on  the  tree  until 
destroyed  by  frost.  It  will  keep  two  years,  with  com- 
mon care,  in  a  cellar,  and  will  stand  repeated  freezing 
and  thawing  in  a  dark  place.  It  is  agreeable  to  many 
palates  in  the  spring. 

"The  tree  is  an  immense  grower  in  the  nursery, 
coming  early  into  fruit  and  making  but  little  growth 
afterwards,  and  is  an  immense  and  regular  bearer.  I 
have  made  some  cider  as  clear  as  wine,  with  sugar  or 
a  quarter  part  of  sweet  apples.  It  will  make  delicious 
strong  cider.  Tree  perfectly  hardy,  having  stood  the 
severest  winters  here  and  at  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  for  25 
years.  I  have  none  for  sale,  and  never  expect  to  dis- 
pose of  any  ;  I  am  too  old.  But  I  believe  that  there 
is  money  in  it  for  younger  ones." 

Downing,  in  the  first  Appendix  to  his  "Fruits  and 
Fruit  Trees,"  says  that  the  Soulard  crab  originated 


264         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUE    NATIVE    FRUITS 

with  Antoine  Lessieur,  Portage  des  Sioux,  a  few  miles 
above  St.  Louis,  Missouri.  Confusion  appears  to  have 
arisen  from  the  fact  that  a  seedling  apple  raised 
at  Galena  by  Mr.  Soulard  has  been  distributed  as  the 
Soulard  apple.  And  some  writers  have  said  that  the 
Soulard  apple  came  from  St.  Louis,  and  the  Soulard 
crab  from  Galena.  Downing  was  confused  on  these 
fruits,  and  other  writers  have  added  to  the  perplexity. 
In  "American  Gardening"  for  April,  1893,  a  correct 
description  and  figure  of  the  Soulard  apple  are  given, 
but  the  confusion  respecting  the  origin  is  still  per- 
petuated. 

There  is  a  great  difference  of  opinion  concerning 
the  value  of  the  Soulard  crab,  due  in  large  part  to  a 
misconception  of  its  merits.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  it  is  a  crab  apple,  and  is  not  to  be  compared 
with  eating  apples.  As  a  crab,  it  appears  to  possess 
some  advantages,  particularly  as  a  possible  parent  of 
a  new  race  of  fruits  for  the  West.  Professor  Budd 
speaks  of  it  as  follows,  in  "Rural  Life:"  "The  only 
value  of  the  Soulard  crab  known  to  the  writer  is  for 
mixing  sparingly  with  good  cooking  apples  for  sauce, 
to  which  it  imparts  a  marked  quince  flavor,  which 
most  persons  like.  It  is  also  said  to  make  a  jelly 
superior  to  that  of  the  Siberian  crabs."  D.  B.  Wier, 
for  many  years  a  fruit-grower  in  Illinois,  writes  me 
as  follows  concerning  it :  "  It  is  simply  a  variety  of 
the  common  wild  crab  of  the  northern  United  States. 
Its  fruit  is  quite  large  for  the  type,  smooth,  round, 
somewhat  elongated,  and  of  a  clear,  bright,  golden 
yellow  when  ripe  ;  and  it  keeps  with  little  loss,  with 
care,  until  spring,  when  it  becomes,  we  may  say, 
nearly  eatable.  The  fruit,  like  the  type  generally,  is 


THE    SOULARD    CRAB  265 

very  fragrant,  and,  cooked  with  plenty  of  sugar,  it 
makes  a  most  delicious  preserve  or  sweet-meat,  highly 
prized  by  the  pioneer  housewife.  The  tree  is  a  fine 
pyramidal  grower,  rather  ornamental  in  form,  leaf  and 
flower.  It  is  propagated  by  root -grafting  on  seed- 
lings of  the  common  apple.  With  me  in  Illinois  it 
was  not  fully  hardy,  our  severe  test  winters  reducing 
its  vitality  plainly.  I  could  not  recommend  the 
Soulard  crab  as  being  a  fruit  of  much  value.  With 
me  it  was  for  many  years  a  scanty  bearer.  It  is  a 
rather  fine  ornamental  tree,  and  did  not  have  the 
suckering  habit,  which  would  make  most  of  the 
varieties  of  the  species  nuisances  in  the  garden." 
J.  S.  Harris,  of  La  Crescent,  Minn.,  gives  me  these 
notes  of  it:  "The  Soulard  crab  was  introduced 
here  about  thirty  years  since,  as  being  a  cross 
between  Pyrus  coronaria  and  the  common  apple ;  as 
hardy,  fruitful  and  a  good  substitute  for  the  quince, 
which  it  is  supposed  will  not  grow  here.  At  one  time 
it  was  planted  quite  freely,  with  the  view  of  making 
cider  from  the  fruit,  but  I  think  it  has  never  proved 
satisfactory.  The  fruit  is  used  to  some  extent  in  our 
western  cities  as  a  substitute  for  the  quince  for  pre- 
serves, and  mixing  with  better  fruit,  to  which  it 
imparts  its  aroma;  but  it  has  never  had  a  'boom,' 
and  hence  the  demand  for  the  fruit  is  limited  and  its 
commercial  value  not  great.  It  is  no  better  than  the 
wild  crab  as  a  stock  upon  which  to  work  the  apple. 
There  is  no  reliable  evidence  that  it  is  a  hybrid,  and 
I  believe  it  to  be  a  natural  variation."  The  "Farmer's 
Union,"  of  Minneapolis,  published  the  following  state- 
ment in  1873,  in  reply  to  a  remark  made  in  the  "Gar- 
deners' Monthly:"  "The  Soulard  grows  at  Pembina, 


266         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

more  than  three  hundred  miles  north  of  St.  Paul. 
The  Soulard  of  all  other  crabs  is  the  most  valuable. 
It  cannot  be  used  as  an  eating  apple.  It  is  bitter, 
worse  than  a  quince,  but  for  preserves  it  is  quite 
equal  if  not  superior  to  the  quince.  We  consider  it 
to-day  the  most  valuable  fruit  grown  in  the  North- 
west." It  is  probable  that  too  much  was  expected  of 
the  Soulard  crab  when  it  was  first  introduced,  and 
that  it  afterwards  suffered  from  the  partial  collapse. 
Such  an  array  of  apples  has  now  been  introduced  into 
the  cold  Northwest  —  from  the  East,  from  Russia, 
offspring  of  the  Siberian  crab,  and  local  seedlings  of 
the  common  apple— that  the  Soulard  crab  and  its  kin 
have  been  obscured. 

What  is  the  botanical  history  of  this  Soulard  crab! 
So  far  as  I  know,  this  crab  has  always  been  regarded 
as  Pyrus  coronaria,  or  as  a  hybrid  between  it  and  the 
common  apple.  Any  one  familiar  with  Pyrus  coronaria 
as  it  grows  in  the  eastern  states  will  at  once  observe 
that  the  leaves  and  short  petioles  and  peduncle  of  the 
Soulard  crab  belong  to  some  other  species.  In  my  first 
critical  study  of  the  Soulard  crab,  I  became  convinced 
that  it  represents  a  distinct  natural  species,  and  accord- 
ingly named  it  Pyrus  Soulardi  ("American  Garden," 
xii.  472),  and  this  conclusion  was  fortified  by  the  fact 
that  the  plant  occurs  in  a  wild  state  from  Minnesota, 
apparently,  to  Texas.  The  technical  characters  which  I 
found  to  separate  this  plant  from  both  Pyrus  coronaria 
and  P.  loensis  are  the  following : 

"Leaves  round -ovate  to  elliptic -ovate,  either 
rounded  or  tapering  at  the  base,  large,  bluntly  and 
closely  serrate  or  dentate -serrate  when  young,  irregu- 
larly crenate- dentate  at  maturity,  with  a  tendency  to 


THE    SOULARD    TYPE 


267 


become  lobed,  obtuse  or  even  truncate  at  the  top,  on 
short  (1  inch  or  less)  and  thick  pubescent  petioles, 
very  thick  and  conspicu- 
ously rugose,  and  clothed 
below  with  a  dense  tomen- 
tum  like  the  ordinary 
apple  leaf,  which  it  much 
resembles  in  color  and 
texture  (Fig.  50) ;  flowers 
smaller  than  in  P.  coro- 
naria,  crowded  in  close 
clusters  like  those  of  the 
common  apple,  and  borne 
on  short  (%  to  %  inch 
long),  densely  white- 
woolly  pedicels.  A  rather 
upright  and  stout -growing 
tree,  occurring  from  Min- 
nesota (Lake  Calhoun, 
Hb.  H.  Mann.}  to  Texas 
(Gillespie  county,  O. 
Jermy).  Judging  from  the 
few  specimens  in  herbaria, 
this  must  be  an  uncommon 
species.  In  fact,  I  have 
seen  but  three  wild  speci- 
mens, as  follows :  Lake 
Calhoun,  Minn.,  Hb. 
Mann.  (Cornell  Univer- 
sity) ;  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Hb.  Fi8' »'  Mature  leaf 
Torrey,  and  Texas,  Hb.  Dept.  Agr.  I  have  the 
cultivated  plant  from  several  sources. 

"Whatever  value  my  conclusions  may  ultimately  be 


268    THE  EVOLUTION  OF  OUR  NATIVE  FRUITS 


found  to  possess,"  I  said  at  the  time,  "I  hope  that  the 
arrangement  now  proposed  will  serve  to  elucidate  the 
confused  knowledge  of  our  wild  crab  apples."  With 
this  saving  clause  in  mind,  I  now 
confess  to  a  belief  that  Pyrus  Soulardi 
is  not  a  true  species,  but  is  a  hy- 
brid between  Pyrus  loensis  and  the 
common  apple,  Pyrus  Mains.  The 
jr  chief  considerations  which  lead  me 

to  this  conclusion  are  -the 
facts  that  the  plant,  in  a 
wild  state,  seems  to  have 
no  connected  or  normal 
range,  and  that  various 
specimens  which  I  have 
had  an  opportunity  to  ex- 
amine during  the  past  few 
years  have  shown  almost 
complete  gradations  from 
one  of  these  species  to  the 
other.  I  cannot  now  de- 
fine Pyrus  Soulardi  by  any 
characters  which  are  not 
also  common  to  one  or 
both  of  the  other  species, 
Pyrus  loensis  or  P.  Malus. 
The  reader  can  trace  the 
features  of  these  assumed 
parents  in  the  various  pic- 
tures of  them  and  of  the 
Soulard  type  which  accompany  this  text.  Fig.  46  shows 
outlines  of  the  leaf  of  Pyrus  loensis,  and  Fig.  51  of 
the  common  apple.  Fig.  50  is  a  good  intermediate. 


Fig.  51.    Leaf  of  com 


apple. 


270          THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

Forms  of  large -fruited  crabs  are  now  frequently 
discovered  in  the  thickets  of  the  West.  The  photo- 
graphs of  the  Mathews  crabs,  shown  full  size  in  Figs. 
52  and  53,  will  give  an  idea  of  the 
size  and  beauty  of  some  of  these  wild 
fruits.  These  specimens  were  sent 
Fi  53  m  me  by  B.  A.  Mathews,  of  Knoxville, 
Mathews  crab.  %  Iowa,  who  is  cultivating  it.  It  has 
Natural  si*,.  |  very  large,  apple -like, 

smooth  leaves.  Mr. 
Mathews  writes  that 
trees  of  this  which  he 
has  in  cultivation  gave 
fruit,  in  the  fall  of 
1890,  which  "sold  at 
one  dollar  per  bushel, 
while  good  fruit  of 
Grimes'  Golden, 
Roman  Stem  and 
others  was  selling  for 
fifty  to  seventy -five  cents."  Mr.  Mathews  adds : 
"I  saw  specimens  of  another  wild  crab  last  fall 
which  reminded  me  of  small  Grimes'  Golden.  It  was 
the  nicest  one  I  have  seen."  J.  S.  Harris,  Minnesota, 
writes,  "I  saw  a  sample  of  native  crab  last  fall  that 
was  larger  than  the  Soulard,  and  quite  distinct 
from  ." 

The  late  D.  B.  Wier,  of  Illinois,  once  wrote  me  as 
follows  respecting  wild  crabs:  "Along  the  streams 
in  northern  Illinois  I  have  seen  many  wild  crabs  the 
superior  of  the  Soulard  in  every  characteristic,  yet  none 
with  qualities  such  as  would  give  them  much  value  for 
cultivation,  though  many  might  be  useful  as  culinary 


WILD    CRABS  271 

fruits.  If  the  quince  is  a  valuable  culinary  fruit,  the 
better  varieties  of  the  wild  American  crab  are  worthy 
a  place  in  the  garden  and  orchard  for  the  same 
purposes.  The  crab  is  much  the  hardier,  handsomer 
tree,  and  subject  to  much  fewer  ills  than  the  quince, 
and  is  usually  enormously  productive  of  its  peculiar 
austere  fruit.  The  wild  crab  ripens  its  fruit  from 
early  autumn  until  the  following  summer.  The  old 
practice  in  pioneer  times  was  to  bury  the  hard  fruit  in 
the  soil  late  in  autumn  and  so  leave  it  until  spring, 
when  it  would  open  out  a  fine  golden  yellow. 

"In  its  wild  state,  this  crab  is  a  variable  fruit  in 
size,  color,  flavor,  shape  and  time  of  ripening.  I  have 
seen  trees  of  it  growing  wild,  with  fruits  averaging 
fully  two  inches  in  diameter.  The  fruit  of  the  Soulard 
runs  from  one  and  a -half  to  two  inches.  The  fruit 
of  it  is  generally  round,  somewhat  flattened,  averaging 
about  an  inch  in  diameter,  though  often  larger  or 
smaller.  It  is  rarely  oblong,  sometimes  pyriform,  and 
I  have  seen  it  (or  one  of  the  same  type)  in  one  instance 
with  the  fruit  pyriform,  and  with  a  bright  red  cheek, 
growing  in  the  woods  miles  away  from  domesticated 
apples;  and  I  have  heard  of  two  other  like  instances. 
The  better  varieties  of  our  wild  crab  should  be  a  fruit 
of  value  in  the  far  north,  above  the  line  where  the 
common  apple  can  be  safely  grown.  And  there  is  no 
doubt,  from  its  natural  variability,  that  a  fruit  of  con- 
siderable value  could  be  produced  from  it  for  culinary 
purposes.  The  pioneers  had  little  use  for  it,  simply 
because  sugar  in  those  days  cost  money,  and  money 
at  times  was  not  to  be  had." 

The  Fluke  crab  is  another  of  these  hybrids,  from 
Iowa,  with  fruits  as  large  as  those  of  the  Mathews. 


272         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

It  is  strange  that  hybrids  of  the  common  apple  and 
Pyrus  coronaria  have  never  been  found,  although  both 
species  are  common  in  the  eastern  states.  But  the  fact 
that  the  apple  seems  to  hybridize  freely  with  Pyrus 
loensis  and  not  with  P.  coronaria,  is'  still  further  indi- 
cation that  these  two  native  crabs  are  really  distinct 
species,  as  species  go.  To  my  mind,  there  is  much 
promise  of  good  to  come  from  the  further  amalgama- 
tion of  Pyrus  loensis  and  the  common  apple,  particularly 
in  the  augmentation  of  hardiness  of  tree  and  keeping 
qualities  of  the  fruit.  There  is  warrant  for  this  opinion 
in  the  old-time  crabs  of  our  gardens,  of  the  Transcen- 
dent type,  for  these  are  hybrids  of  the  common  apple 
and  the  Siberian  crab,  Pyrus  baccata.  So  distinct  in 
appearance  are  some  of  these  apples  that  Willdenow 
long  ago  called  them  a  distinct  species,  Pyrus  pruni- 
folia.* There  are  many  crabs  in  cultivation  which 
belong  to  this  prunifolia  class,  and  they  are  prized  for 
culinary  qualities,  beauty,  productiveness  and  hardi- 
ness. Pyrus  prunifolia  is  to  the  apple  and  the  Siberian 
crab  what  Pyrus  Soulardi  is  to  the  common  apple  and 
the  prairie  states  crab  ;  and  if  the  former  type  is  val- 
uable we  have  reason  to  hope  that  the  latter  will  be 
also.  Various  experiments  have  already  been  made  in 
hybridizing  this  western  crab  with  the  apple,  by  C.  G. 
Patten,  of  Iowa,  by  experimenters  at  the  Iowa  Agri- 
cultural College,  and  elsewhere ;  but  it  is  probable 
that  the  larger  part  of  the  future  improvement  will 
be  fortuitous,  for  nature  makes  her  experiments  upon 
an  extensive  scale,  and  she  never  gives  up.  The  years 

*Willdenow's  type  of  P.  prunifolia,  preserved  in  Berlin,  shows  flowers  and 
leaves,  and  has  the  botanical  characters  of  the  Transcendent  and  Hyslop  crabs. 
It  is  almost  unmistakably  a  hybrid  of  Pyrus  Malus  and  P.  baccata. 


PROPHECY  273 

are  hers.  The  insinuation  of  the  native  blood  into 
domestic  apples  will  probably  be  very  gradual  and 
undemonstrative,  and  much  of  the  result  will  prob- 
ably never  be  discovered  ;  but  the  benefits  will  be  all 
the  greater  if  the  native  species  shall  be  so  com- 
pletely blended  with  other  types  that  their  influence 
is  not  recognized. 


THE    ORIGIN    OF    AMERICAN    RASPBERRY - 
GROWING 

THE  raspberry  has  long  been  one  of  the  important 
bush -fruits  of  Europe.  The  wild  plant  is  native  to 
Europe,  and  it  was  named  Rubus  Idceus  by  Linnaeus, 
from  Mt.  Ida,  in  Greece,  where  it  seems  to  have  been 
early  esteemed.  This  raspberry  has  been  cultivated 
from  the  fourth  century  of  our  era,  and  perhaps  even 
earlier,  although  its  cultivation  had  not  attracted  much 
attention  until  two  or  three  centuries  ago.  About 
twenty  named  varieties  were  known  in  England  early 
in  this  century. 

This  excellent  European  fruit  was  early  introduced 
into  American  gardens.  M'Mahon  recommends  it 
in  his  admirable  "American  Gardener's  Calendar,"  in 
1806.  "There  are  many  varieties  of  the  Rubus  Idceus, 
or  European  raspberry,"  he  writes,  "but  the  most  pref- 
erable are  the  large  common  red,  the  large  common 
white,  the  red  Antwerp,  and  the  white  Antwerp  rasp- 
berries." The  first  edition  of  Prince's  "Pomological 
Manual,"  1831,  describes  a  dozen  varieties,  the  greater 
number  of  which  are  of  foreign  origin.  It  was  soon 
found,  however,  that  this  European  type  of  raspberry 
is  unreliable  in  North  America.  This  is  chiefly  because 
of  lack  of  hardiness,  both  in  withstanding  the  cold  of 
winter  and  the  drought  and  heat  of  summer.  Conse- 
quently, the  raspberry  failed  to  attract  much  attention 
274 


THE    FIRST    RASPBERRIES  275 

except  in  garden  cultivation,  where  some  protection 
and  the  best  care  could  be  given  it.  The  Antwerp 
and  the  Fontenay,  varieties  of  this  species,  are  still 
grown  by  amateurs. 

Early  American  History 

But,  as  in  the  grapes,  plums,  gooseberries,  and 
other  fruits,  there  are  raspberries  growing  in  the 
woods  which  quickly  lent  themselves  to  domestication 
as  soon  as  an  effort  was  made  to  tame  them.  In 
fact,  they  came  into  cultivation  without  an  invitation, 
and  so  little  have  we  cared  for  their  genealogies  that 
it  is  not  until  the  last  six  or  eight  years  that  any 
real  attempt  has  been  made  to  discover  the  botanical 
affinities  of  the  various  types.  The  first  native  berry 
to  come  into  cultivation  was  called  the  English  Red, 
the  name  itself  recording  the  ignorance  of  its  origin. 
In  1831,  when  Prince  wrote,  this  was  "the  only  variety 
at  present  cultivated  to  a  great  extent  for  the  supply 
of  the  New  York  market,  and  there  are  probably  near 
one  hundred  acres  of  land  on  Long  Island  appropri- 
ated to  its  culture."  Prince  was  aware  of  its  botani- 
cal affinities,  and  he  substitutes  for  the  name  English 
Red  the  truer  one  of  Common  Red,  and  gives  it 
Rubus  Americanus  for  its  Latin  name.  He  says  that 
it  "is  a  native  of  our  state,  and  grows  naturally  in 
the  Catskill  Mountains."  "The  fruit  is  one  of  the 
earliest  at  maturity,  of  medium  size,  fine  flavour,  and 
held  in  great  estimation,  as  well  for  the  dessert  as 
for  making  cherry  brandy,  &c."  Prince  also  men- 
tions the  Virginia  Red,  which  appears  not  to  have 
been  in  cultivation;  the  Pennsylvania!!,  a  red-fruited 


276         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

variety  which  he  obtained  "from  a  London  nursery, 
under  the  title  of  Rubus  Pennsylvanicus,  but  have 
since  found  it  to  be  identical  with  plants  received 
from  the  forests  of  the  State  of  Maine ; "  and  the 
Canada  Red,  or  Rubus  Canadensis,  a  red  raspberry  of 
medium  size  which  he  had  seen  growing  along  the 
roadsides  near  Montreal,  and  the  fruit  of  which  was 
there  collected  and  "large  quantities  sold  in  the  mar- 
kets." Prince  also  mentions  the  wild  black  raspberry, 
but  this  was  not  cultivated.  The  preference  for  the 
red  berries  is  easily  explained  from  the  fact  that  the 
fruits  of  the  European  raspberry  are  red  or  purple. 
The  earliest  raspberry -growers  naturally  followed  the 
foreign  models  ;  but  these  patterns  were  destined  soon 
to  be  obscured  by  a  new  type  of  fruit. 

We  shall  find  this  new  type  of  fruit — the  improved 
black  raspberry  or  black -cap — developing  in  the  West, 
and  its  genius  is  Nicholas  Longworth,  the  same  pro- 
phetic spirit  who  put  American  grape -growing  on  its 
feet.  He  had  found  a  wild  raspberry  of  unusual 
promise  in  Ohio  in  1832.  After  he  had  cultivated  it 
for  a  number  of  years,  he  was  not  only  convinced  of 
its  value  for  America,  but  wanted  it  tried  in  England 
as  well.  So  we  find  him  writing  to  the  "Gardener's 
Magazine,"  in  London,  about  his  new  berry:* 

"When  driven  into  the  interior  of  the  state  by  the 
cholera,  in  September  and  October  of  3832,  I  found  a 
raspberry  in  full  bearing,  a  native  of  our  state,  and 
the  only  everbearing  raspberry  I  have  ever  met  with. 
I  introduced  it  the  same  winter  into  my  garden,  and 
it  is  now  cultivated  by  me  in  preference  to  all  others, 

*A  synopsis  of  this  history  is  published  iu  Bull.  117,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta. 


THE    OHIO    EVERBEARING  277 

and  ray  table  is  supplied  from  the  beginning  of  June 
till  frost. 

"By  means  of  heat,  under  glass,  it  might  be  made 
to  bear  well  through  the  winter.  The  first  of  June  it 
produces  a  most  abundant  crop,  about  ten  days  earlier 
than  any  other  variety.  The  wood  producing  that 
crop  dies  through  the  early  part  of  the  summer,  and 
the  second  shoots  begin  to  ripen  fruit  before  the  crop 
on  the  old  wood  is  over,  and  continue  to  bear  till 
frost,  and  then  produce  the  June  crop  of  the  follow- 
ing season.  The  fruit  is  black,  of  good  size,  and  is 
preferred  by  a  majority  of  persons  at  my  table  to  the 
Antwerp.  The  vine  is  a  native  of  the  northern  part 
of  our  state,  where  the  summers  are  not  as  dry  and 
warm  as  at  our  city,  and  they  have  a  substratum  of 
clay.  In  my  garden  the  substratum  is  gravel,  and 
our  summers  are  dry  and  hot.  From  these  causes  it 
does  not  bear  as  well  with  me  through  the  heat  of 
the  summer  as  it  does  in  its  native  region,  and  will 
do  in  a  cooler  and  moister  climate.  I  sent  some  to  my 
sister,  nine  miles  from  New  York,  where  the  substra- 
tum is  clay,  and  the  climate  cooler  and  less  subject 
to  drought.  With  her  it  produces  double  the  fruit  in 
the  heat  of  summer  that  it  does  with  me.  From  these 
causes  I  have  believed  it  would  bear  most  abundantly 
in  most  parts  of  Great  Britain.  It  does  not  increase  by 
offsets,  as  other  raspberries  do,  but  in  September  and 
October  the  shoots  descend  to  the  ground,  and  each 
one,  as  it  strikes  the  earth,  throws  out  six  or  seven 
small  shoots,  that  immediately  take  root  and  throw  up 
shoots.  I  say  it  is  a  native,  because  I  have  never 
seen  or  heard  of  it  except  the  few  plants  in  a  par- 
ticular location  where  I  found  it  in  1832.  It  has 


278         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

not  yet  been  offered  for  sale,  except  a  few  plants  by 
Mr.  Howarth,  who  now  contemplates  taking  his  entire 
stock  to  England.  It  is  unknown  out  of  this  vicinity, 
and  there  is  but  one  person  who  has  more  than  a  few 
plants,  as  there  have  been  none  for  sale.  Our  sea- 
sons have  been  dry  of  late  years,  and,  anxious  to 
supply  my  own  garden,  I  could  spare  none,  except  a 
plant  to  a  particular  friend.  All  beyond  what  are 
wanted  in  my  garden,  my  gardener  furnished  to  Mr. 
Howarth.  The  vine  is  very  hardy,  is  not  killed  by 
frost,  is  of  rapid  and  vigorous  growth,  and  requires 
no  particular  cultivation,  except  that,  from  its  vigor- 
ous growth,  it  should  have  a  higher  trellis  than  the 
Antwerp.  ****** 
"CINCINNATI,  OHFO,  September  30,  1841." 

Attached  to  this  letter  is  a  memorandum  from 
J.  B.  Purcell,  Bishop  of  Cincinnati,  testifying  to  the 
goodness  of  both  Mr.  Longworth  and  the  fruit: 
"I  feel  happy  in  expressing  my  perfect  assent  to 
what  has  been  stated  above,  on  which  the  most 
perfect  reliance  can  be  placed,"  the  reverend  gentle- 
man says.  "Mr.  Longworth  has  no  interest  but  the 
public  good  and  the  advancement  of  horticulture 
to  promote,  by  his  bringing  before  the  people  of 
England  this  luxurious,  hardy,  and  indigenous  va- 
riety of  the  raspberry.  As  far  as  my  judgment 
goes,  I  have  never  tasted  a  finer  species  of  that 
fruit."  The  editor  of  the  magazine  adds  that  "plants 
of  this  raspberry  are  in  a  London  nursery,  but  none 
of  them  will  be  sold  till  the  worth  of  the  variety 
is  ascertained."  The  variety  never  gained  much 
note  in  England,  but  Robert  Hogg  still  retains  it 
in  the  fifth  edition  of  his  "Fruit  Manual,"  in  1884, 


THE    OHIO    EVERBEARING  279 

although  it  is  probably  long  since  extinct  in  America. 

Long  worth's  letter  to  the  "Gardener's  Magazine" 
is  not  the  earliest  record  of  this  raspberry,  however. 
The  earliest  note  of  it  which  I  have  seen  is  the  fol- 
lowing, in  Hovey's  "Magazine  of  Horticulture,"  Bos- 
ton, for  1837: 

"Everbearing  Raspberry. — The  'Genesee  Farmer' 
states  that  a  new  kind  of  raspberry  has  been  found  in 
New  York  state,  near  Lake  Erie,  by  the  Shakers 
residing  there,  and  that  it  produces  its  fruit  through- 
out the  summer  and  autumn.  It  is  also  stated  to  be 
really  a  valuable  variety,  and  worthy  of  extensive  cul- 
tivation. The  fruit  in  appearance  is  longer  than  the 
wild  black  raspberry,  and  approaches  near,  in  size  and 
excellence,  to  the  White  Antwerp,  but  is  not  so  high 
flavored.  The  habit  of  growth  is  somewhat  similar 
to  the  common  purple  raspberry,  the  shoots  of  which 
are  very  vigorous,  bending  over  and  touching  the 
ground,  and  take  root,  by  which  mode  it  is  rapidly 
increased.  Its  mode  of  producing  its  fruit  is  as  fol- 
lows :  In  the  spring  the  old  shoots  throw  out  their 
new  branches,  as  in  other  sorts  upon  which  the  first 
crop  appears,  but  soon  the  new  shoots  begin  to  grow, 
and  when  they  have  attained  a  good  size,  which  is 
generally  just  before  the  first  crop  is  gone,  they  pro- 
duce the  second  crop  ;  to  this  latter  circumstance  it 
owes  its  name,  and  its  peculiarity.  The  fruit  of  the 
second  crop  is  considered  the  best.  It  is  grown  by 
Mr.  Longworth,  of  Cincinnati,  and  by  the  Shakers 
near  Lebanon,  but  has  not  yet  found  its  way  into  any 
of  our  Atlantic  cities." 

In  1842,  the  same  magazine  makes  another  account 
of  this  variety : 


280         THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

"The  Everbearing  Raspberry.— In  our  Vol.  III.,  p. 
154,  under  our  Miscellaneous  Notices,  we  gave  an 
account  [quoted  above]  of  this  fruit,  which  had  then 
just  been  brought  into  notice ;  since  then,  we  have 
heard  very  little  of  it  till  the  past  year.  It  is  now 
attracting  more  attention,  and  as  it  is  deemed  a  valu- 
able acquisition,  we  have  copied  a  further  description 
of  it  below,  which  we  find  in  the  'American  Agricul- 
turist : ' 

"The  Ohio  everbearing  raspberry  was  first  dis- 
covered some  fifteen  years  ago,  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  state,  near  Lake  Erie,  but  in  what  particular 
part  is  unknown.  Mr.  Longworth,  of  Cincinnati,  intro- 
duced it  into  his  garden  in  1832,  at  which  period  he 
was  driven  into  the  back  country  by  the  cholera,  where 
he  found  it  growing.  It  has  been  little  known,  how- 
ever, in  Cincinnati,  until  within  the  last  two  years, 
but  there  is  now  great  effort  made  by  the  gardeners 
to  cultivate  it  for  the  market  of  that  city.  The  fruit 
resembles  the  wild  native  raspberry,  but  is  much 
larger,  more  fleshy,  and  of  a  much  finer  flavor,  and 
is  almost  a  very  ^profuse  bearer.  In  Cincinnati,  the 
wood  of  the  previous  year  bears  one  crop  in  June, 
after  which  it  soon  dies  ;  the  young  shoots  then  come 
into  bearing,  and  continue  doing  so  into  October,  till 
the  frost  cuts  them  off,  when  may  be  seen  buds  and 
blossoms,  and  the  fruit  in  every  stage  from  green  up 
to  full  ripe,  on  the  bush,  stayed  by  the  hand  of  nature 
in  the  midst  of  their  productiveness.  The  fruit  is 
preferred  by  many  to  the  Red  Antwerp,  and  with  its 
large,  erect  clusters  of  flowers,  presents  a  beautiful 
appearance. 

"Mr.    Longworth,   in    a   communication    describing 


THE    OHIO    EVERBEARING  281 

this  fruit,  in  the  'Gardener's  Magazine'  [already 
quoted] ,  states  that  the  plants,  in  light,  dry  soils,  are 
not  very  productive  in  the  autumn  crop  ;  but  if  grown 
on  a  stiff  loam  on  a  clayey  subsoil,  bear  profusely  till 
destroyed  by  frost.  From  all  that  has  been  said  in 
relation  to  it,  it  appears  a  desirable  fruit,  and  we  hope 
soon  to  test  its  qualities  ourselves." 

From  these  two  last  accounts,  one  is  not  sure 
whether  the  variety  was  found  in  New  York  or  Ohio, 
notwithstanding  the  explicit  statement  [p.  279]  that  it 
came  from  New  York  state,  for  it  is  stated  that  it  had 
not  yet  found  its  way  into  the  Atlantic  states,  but  was 
grown  only  by  Longworth  and  by  the  Shakers  at 
Lebanon,  which  is  about  thirty  miles  from  Cincinnati ; 
and,  moreover,  it  could  not  have  occurred  in  the 
"  northern  part  of  the  state "  of  New  York  and  yet  be 
found  "near  Lake  Erie."  Longworth's  own  account 
explicitly  states  that  he  found  the  berry  in  Ohio. 

The  berry  became  known  as  the  Ohio  Everbearing, 
and,  by  the  natural  process  of  elimination,  as  the 
Ohio.  At  the  present  time,  an  Ohio  raspberry  is 
extensively  cultivated,  so  extensively  that  in  western 
New  York  alone  probably  not  less  than  a  thousand 
tons  of  the  dried  berries  are  marketed  each  year  from 
this  single  variety.  But  this  contemporaneous  variety 
is  not  the  berry  of  Longworth.  It  originated  from  a 
single  plant  which  came  in  a  planting  of  another 
variety,  obtained  from  Ohio,  early  in  the  sixties,  upon 
the  farm  of  Hiram  Van  Dusen,  of  Palmyra,  New 
York.  The  old  Ohio  has  passed  away,  but  berry- 
growers  have  not  known  the  fact,  because  the  present 
variety,  of  like  name,  has  been  confounded  with  it. 
The  materials  which  are  concerned  in  the  evolution 


282         THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

of  horticulture  are  so  transient,  and  the  records  and 
histories  are  so  few  and  so  inaccurate,  that  many  of 
the  milestones  are  lost  forever;  but  this  generation 
should  do  something  to  rescue  and  to  hold  the  passing 
events  upon  which  so  much  of  the  knowledge  and 
experience  of  the  future  must  rest. 

The  next  event  in  the  domestication  of  the  native 
black -cap  was  the  introduction  of  a  variety  found 
growing  wild  by  Leauder  Joslyn,  of  Phelps,  Ontario 
county,  N.  Y.,  and  introduced  by  H.  H.  Doolittle, 
of  Oaks  Corners,  in  the  same  county,  about  1850. 
This  was  variously  known  as  American  Black,  Joslyn's 
Black-cap,  Joslyn's  Improved,  American  Improved, 
and  Doolittle.  Under  the  last  name,  the  variety  was 
widely  disseminated,  and  was  cultivated  until  ten  or 
fifteen  years  ago.  Several  other  varieties  followed 
within  the  next  few  years,  but  raspberry  culture  grew 
slowly,  nevertheless.  The  American  Pomological 
Society,  at  its  session  in  1853,  commended  only  five 
varieties,  and  all  of  them  were  foreigners.  The  grow- 
ing of  small-fruits  had  not  yet  assumed  great  impor- 
tance in  this  country.  There  were  no  facilities  for 
marketing  such  fruits  in  any  quantity,  people  had  not 
learned  to  use  them  freely,  and  the  farmers  were 
wedded  to  the  old-time  crops.  It  was  not  until  after 
1870  or  1875  that,  under  the  stimulus  of  a  general 
awakening  and  new  teaching  in  agricultural  matters, 
the  cultivation  of  the  bush -fruits  began  to  attract  wide- 
spread attention.  Meantime,  however,  the  foundations 
were  all  laying.  Forehanded  persons  here  and  there 
were  learning  how  to  grow  and  handle  the  new  fruits. 
Books  and  periodical  articles,  some  of  them  in  advance 
of  their  time,  were  expounding  the  new  ideas.  Now 


DR.    BRINCKLE  283 

;md  then  a  patient  investigator  was  working  out  new 
problems  and  securing  new  varieties.  The  bud  of  a 
new  type  of  agriculture  was  slowly  developing.  We 
now  foresee  the  full  bloom.* 

Among  the  earliest  American  experimenters  with 
raspberries  was  Dr.  William  D.  Brinckle,  of  Philadel- 
phia, "a  busy  physician,  who,"  as  Professor  Card 
writes,  "having  a  taste  for  pomology,  pursued  it  as  a 
means  of  recreation  from  other  duties.  He  experi- 
mented with  strawberries  and  pears,  as  well  as  with 
raspberries.  So  important  was  his  work  in  these 
lines  that  he  seems  to  be  much  better  remembered  for 
that  than  for  his  medical  reputation,  although  he  was 
successful  and  prominent  in  this  field  also.  He  was 
president  of  the  American  Pomological  Society  at  its 
second  session,  and  for  many  years  vice-president  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Horticultural  Society,  repeatedly 
refusing  its  presidency.  Unfortunately,  his  work  on 
raspberries  was  with  the  Rubus  Idceus  species,  and 
most  of  the  varieties  which  he  produced  have  suffered 
the  fate  of  the  class  to  which  they  belong;  yet  he 
obtained  in  Brinckle 's  Orange  the  variety  which  has 
stood  as  the  desideratum  to  be  sought  in  quality  to 
the  present  day."  This  variety  has  the  following  his- 
tory, to  quote  Dr.  Brinckle  himself  :  "  It  originated 
*  *  *  *  *  from  a  seed  of  Dyark's  Seedling, 
a  large  English  crimson  variety,  imported  by  Mr. 
Robert  Buist,  of  Philadelphia.  The  seed  was  planted 
July  13th,  1843,  vegetated  in  the  spring  of  1844, 
fruited  in  1845,  and  described  in  the  'Horticulturist' 

*For  a.  very  full  description  of  all  the  varieties  of  raspberries  cultivated  in 
the  United  States,  see  (Jrozier,  Bull.  Ill,  Mich.  Kxp.  Sta.  Consult,  also,  Card1* 
"Bush-Fruits." 


284          THE     EVOLUTION     OF     OUR    NATIVE     FRUITS 

for  October,  1846."  Dr.  Brinckle  died  in  1863.  He 
was  born  in  Delaware,  and  lie  began  his  medical 
career  in  1820  in  Wilmington.  In  1825,  he  removed 
to  Philadelphia.  A  correspondent  signing  himself 
"R.  B."  (whom  I  take  to  be  Robert  Buist,  the  dis- 


Fig.  54.    William  D.  Brinckle,  an  early  experimenter  with  the  raspoerry. 

tinguished  seedsman  and  author,  of  Philadelphia),  writ- 
ing to  the  "Gardener's  Monthly"  upon  the  occasion  of 
Brinckle 's  death,  remarks  that  "Dr.  Brinckle  stood  at 
the  very  head  of  the  pomological  fraternity,  and  had 
done  more  for  the  science  than  any  other  person, 
whether  American  or  European."  Another  correspon- 
dent, "J.  J.  S."  (no  doubt  John  Jay  Smith,  editor  of 
Michaux's  "Sylva,"  and  once  editor  of  the  "Horticul- 
turist"), gives  the  following  reminiscence  of  Brinckle: 


DR.    BRINCKLE  285 

"  Soon  after  the  establishment  of  the  '  Horticulturist' 
I  introduced  my  much  lamented  friend  Downing  to 
Dr.  Brinckle,  at  the  time  residing  in  Girard  Row, 
Chestnut  street,  then  the  most  distinguished  range  of 
houses  in  Philadelphia.  His  dwelling  was  capacious 
and  fashionable,  but  its  attraction  to  Downing  was  a 
garden  about  as  large  as  the  parlor,  and  a  fourth -story 
front  room  looking  south;  in  the  former  was  con- 
tained a  few  raspberry  bushes,  on  which  the  Doctor 
was  experimenting ;  and  there  stood  the  Brinckle 
Orange,  then  bearing,  for  the  first  time,  half  a  dozen 
of  its  golden  berries ;  others  were  about,  but  the 
Orange  was  evidently  his  pet,  and  it  did  not  deceive 
his  hopes.  That  fruit  alone  is  a  passport  to  enduring 
fame  ;  an  acquisition  in  every  sense  to  be  proud  of. 

"The  up -stairs  front  room  floor  was  covered  with 
pots  of  strawberries,  on  which  hybridizing  experiments 
were  in  progress,  and  the  Doctor  told  us,  with  evident 
satisfaction,  that  he  could  pick  a  bowl  of  fruit  for  a 
patient  at  all  seasons.  Much  conversation  ensued 
between  the  two  lovers  of  improvement,  and  when  we 
left,  Downing  said  much  what  your  correspondent  has 
written  [page  284],  that  Brinckle  had  done  more  for 
horticulture  than  any  other  person  in  America.  If  I 
am  not  mistaken,  he  thought  more  than  all  the  rest 
of  us  put  together. 

"Dr.  Brinckle  was  eminently  a  genial  man,  and 
loved  to  have  his  friends  around  him.  He  gave,  on 
one  occasion,  of  a  fruit-growers'  exhibition,  the  most 
superb  fruit  party  ever  seen  in  this  country.  All  the 
gardeners  and  amateurs  vied  with  each  other  to  fill  his 
noble  table  with  their  best  fruits;  these,  combined 
with  the  very  recherche  cookery  of  Philadelphia's  best 


286         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

restaurateurs,  and  the  best  American  and  foreign 
wines,  with  the  addition  of  the  elite  of  our  citizens 
and  the  gardeners,  formed  a  scene  such  as  I  have  wit- 
nessed in  no  country.  The  occasion  proved  a  most 
interesting  one,  serving  not  only  to  make  people  bet- 
ter acquainted  with  each  other,  but  to  promote  the 
cause  of  fruit  progress. 

"On  one  occasion  a  pleasant  ruse  was  tried  upon 
the  palates  of  some  of  our  best  judges  of  wine.  Long- 
worth's  champagne  was  then  a  new  and  unknown  pro- 
duct, and  a  supply  had  been  forwarded  to  the  Doctor. 
I  was  requested  to  change  the  labels  from  some  very 
superior  foreign  champagne  to  Longworth's  bottles, 
and  to  replace  his  on  the  European.  Then  came  the 
trial!  The  supposed  foreign  was  condemned  and 
Longworth's  had  the  preference  from  some  of  the 
most  noted  Cognescenti.  The  triumph  was  complete, 
and  was  long  a  standing  subject  of  hilarity  and  joke. 

"Little  in  the  way  of  labored  panegyric  need  be 
said  of  our  lamented  friend.  His  own  merits  are 
established,  'and  his  deeds  do  follow  him.'" 

The   Present    Types   of   Cultivated   Raspberries 

With  the  exception  of  the  English  Red,  there 
appears  to  have  been  no  native  red  raspberry  in  cul- 
tivation until  nearly  or  quite  1860,  when  Allen's  Red 
Prolific  and  Allen's  Antwerp — varieties  sent  out  by 
L.  F.  Allen,  Black  Rock,  N.  Y.,  and  which,  accor- 
ding to  A.  S.  Fuller,  were  "merely  accidental  varieties 
of  the  wild  red  raspberry  of  his  locality"— were  intro- 
duced to  the  public  ;  and  it  was  many  years  after  this 
that  the  true  red  raspberries  began  to  attract  much 


THE    VARIOUS    TYPES  287 

attention  from  berry -growers.  The  old  English  Red 
appears  not  to  have  been  a  true  red  raspberry,  but  to 
be  a  representative  of  a  distinct  class,  which  later  came 
to  be  called  the  Purple  Cane.  When  Fuller  wrote  his 
most  excellent  "Small-Fruit  Culturist,"  in  1867,  there 
were  four  types  of  raspberries  in  cultivation :  the 
black -caps,  represented  by  the  American  Improved  or 
Doolittle,  Dawson's  Thornless,  Elsie,  Miami,  Ohio 
Everbearing,  Seneca,  Summit  Yellow -cap,  Surprise, 
White -cap  and  Woodside  ;  the  red  raspberries,  com- 
prising Allen's  Red  Prolific,  Allen's  Antwerp,  Kirt- 
land,  Pearl,  Stoever  and  Scarlet;  the  purple-canes, 
with  Catawissa,  Ellisdale,  Gardiner,  Purple  Cane  and 
Philadelphia  ;  the  foreign  or  Idaeus  types,  of  which  he 
mentions  sixty -seven  varieties,  but  which,  as  a  class, 
although  "larger  and  better  flavored  than  those  of  our 
native  species,"  present  few  varieties  "that  are  hardy 
in  the  northern  states,  and  their  leaves  burn  more  or 
less  at  the  South."  The  black  raspberries  are  direct 
offspring  of  the  wild  black -cap  or  thimbleberry,  Rubus 
occidcntalis,  which  is  common  everywhere  in  the  north- 
eastern states.  It  is  the  first  pure  native  species  to 
give  domestic  offspring,  and  it  is  now  the  most  widely 
and  extensively  cultivated  of  any  American  raspberry. 
The  true  red  raspberries  are  direct  offspring  of  the  wild 
red  or  scarlet  berry,  Rubus  strigosus,  which  is  the 
American  representative  of  Rubus  Idaus,  and  by  some 
botanists  held  to  be  only  a  geographical  modification  of 
the  latter.  It  has  a  wide  natural  range,  extending 
farther  north  than  the  black -cap.  The  foreign  varie- 
ties are  direct  offshoots  of  Rubus  Id&us,  which  grows 
wild  from  Norway  and  Siberia  to  Spain  and  Greece. 
But  what  is  the  purple -cane  tribe,  of  which  the 


288         THE    EVOLUTION     OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

English  Red  was  the  prototype  ?  This  was  called  Ru- 
bus  Americanus  by  Prince  in  1831,  and  his  Rubus  Penn- 
sylvanicus  is  likely  the  same  type.  A.  S.  Fuller  appears 
to  have  been  the  first  author  to  separate  this  class  of 
garden  berries.  He  calls  them  the  "purple -canes,"  and 
characterizes  them  as  follows  :  "  The  principal  differ- 
ence between  the  varieties  of  the  black -cap  and  purple- 
cane  is  in  the  fruit.  The  first,  as  is  well  known,  has  a 
rather  dry,  tough  fruit,  with  a  peculiar  flavor.  Its 
grains  are  numerous  and  very  irregular  in  size.  The 
fruit  of  purple -cane,  as  a  rule,  is  rather  soft,  juicy, 
often  very  brittle,  the  grains  separating  very  readily  ; 
color  varying  from  light  red  to  dark  brownish  purple, 
but  never  black ;  the  flavor  mild  and  agreeable,  but 
entirely  distinct  from  those  of  the  true  black  rasp- 
berry." I  think  that  some  of  the  sorts  which  have 
been  referred  to  Rubus  Idceus  belong  to  this  type,  and 
also  the  Doolittle's  Red -flavored  Black,  which  Mr. 
Fuller  refers  to  the  true  black -caps.  I  am  convinced 
that  it  is  the  most  important  type  of  raspberry  known 
for  America.  From  pure  red  raspberries,  or  Rubus 
strigosus,  we  appear  to  have  obtained  fewer  varieties 
than  is  commonly  supposed ;  Cuthbert  appears  to  me 
to  be  the  first  decided  advance  in  that  species. 

In  1869,  Professor  C.  H.  Peck  studied  certain  wild 
raspberries  in  New  York,  and  used  the  name  Rubus 
neglectus  for  what  he  took  to  be  a  distinct  natural 
species.  The  following  year,  C.  F.  Austin,  writing  of 
northern  Jersey  plants,  in  the  "Bulletin  of  the  Torrey 
Botanical  Club,"  speaks  as  follows  of  this  raspberry : 
"  R.  neglectus,  Peck,  a  hybrid,  I  have  no  doubt,  between 
R.  strigosus  and  R.  occidentalls,  occurs  in  Orange 
county,  but  seldom  more  than  one  bush  in  a  place ;  it 


THE    FOUR    TYPES  289 

will  hardly  average  a  bush  to  a  hundred  acres  of 
land."  Finally,  in  1890,  the  present  writer  referred 
the  purple -canes  to  this  Rubus  neglectus  of  Peck,  and 
attempted  to  designate  the  botanical  characters  which 
distinguish  the  cultivated  forms  from  those  of  Rubus 
occidentalis  and  R.  strigosus.  The  garden  berries  which 
he  then  referred  to  this  species  are  Shaffer,  Caroline, 
Gladstone,  Philadelphia,  Reliance  "and  probably 
Crystal  White."  This  Rubus  neglectus  is  widely  dis- 
tributed in  a  wild  state.  In  order  to  understand  it,  we 
must  draw  the  characters  of  its  relatives,  the  black  and 
the  red ;  and  in  these  features  the  accompanj'ing 
pictures  of  these  species  will  help  us. 

The  botanist  may  distinguish  our  four  types  of 
cultivated  raspberries  by  the  following  marks  : 

Rubus  occidentalis,  Linnaeus  (Blackcap,  Thimble- 
berry  of  some).  (Fig.  55.)  Stems  long,  and  at  ma- 
turity recurved  and  rooting  at  the  tips,  conspicuously 
glaucous,  armed  with  stiff,  hooked  prickles  ;  inflores- 
cence densely  cymose,  the  peduncles  all  aggregated  or 
rarely  one  or  two  somewhat  remote,  short  and  stiff, 
simple  and  erect,  bearing  stiff  prickles  and  sometimes 
also  straight  bristles  ;  petals  shorter  than  the  sepals  ; 
fruit  depressed,  firm  and  dense,  black.  Here  belong 
the  Gregg,  Ohio,  Hilborn,  Ada,  and  others.  The  close- 
fruited  clusters  are  well  shown  in  the  accompanying 
photograph  (Fig  55),  and  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
condensation  is  greater  in  the  Gregg  than  in  the  wild 
berry.  Amber-fruited  forms  of  the  black-cap  are 
occasionally  found  in  wild  areas. 

From  Wyoming  westward  the  wild  black -cap  rasp- 
berry is  represented  by  another  species,  known  as  Rubus 
Uucodermis.  It  is  doubtful  if  the  plant  is  really  distinct 


THE    FOUR    TYPES  291 

from  the  eastern  species,  and  Card  thinks  it  a  variety. 
Its  chief  marks  are  shorter  and  more  hooked  prickles, 
more  coarsely  toothed  leaves,  and  a  yellowish  red  fruit 
which  has  a  white  bloom.  It  has  been  recommended 
for  cultivation  for  its  fruit,  but  no  named  varieties  have 
yet  appeared.  Wickson  speaks  of  it  as  having  "a 
yellowish  red  fruit,  rather  large,  with  a  white  bloom, 
and  agreeable  flavor."  Shinn  says  that  it  "occasionally 
carries  a  fair  crop  of  fruit,  but  one  may  often  search 
a  whole  acre  of  thimbleberry  bushes  in  the  season  with- 
out obtaining  a  double  handful." 

Bubus  neglectus,  Peck.  (22nd  Rep.  Regents  N.  Y. 
State  Univ.  53,  1869.)  Habit  various,  but  the  stems  in 
typical  forms  long  and  rooting  from  the  tip ;  stems 
glaucous,  usually  more  or  less  armed  with  prickles, 
often  bristly  also  ;  inflorescence  racemose-cymose,  the 
peduncles  short  and  usually  prickly,  mostly  stiff,  the 
upper  ones  erect  or  ascending,  simple  or  nearly  so 
above  but  unequally  branched  below,  some  of  them 
aggregated  above  ;  fruit  varying  from  purple -black  to 
bright  purple  or  even  yellowish.  Among  cultivated 
sorts,  the  Shaffer  (Fig.  56)  may  be  considered  the  type 
of  the  species.  A  glance  at  the  illustration  will  show 
the  aggregated  character  of  the  fruit  cluster  at  its 
apex  and  the  gradual  tailing  out  of  the  cluster  at 
the  base.  The  lowest  branches  in  the  cluster  are  apt 
to  give  imperfect  fruit.  There  are  all  gradations, 
from  the  heavy-topped  cluster  of  the  Cuthbert  to  the 
loose  cluster  of  the  Caroline,  but  the  ragged  cluster 
is  usually  characteristic  of  Bub  us  nrglectmt. 

Bub-iis  strigosus,  Michaux  (Red  Raspberry).  (Fig. 
57.)  Stems,  at  least  in  the  wild  plant,  densely  clothed 
with  straight  and  weak  bristles,  usually  brown  or 


292 


THE    EVOLUTION     OF     OUR     NATIVE     FRUITS 


reddish  brown ;  inflorescence  racemose,  the  peduncles 
scattered,  all  slender  and  drooping,  either  simple  or 
2-  or  3 -flowered,  not  aggregated  at  the  top,  smooth 
or  bristly ;  petals  as  long  as  the  glandular  sepals ; 
fruit  light  red,  soft.  The  racemose  character  of  the 


Fig.  56.    The  Shaffer  raspberry.    Xubus  neglectus. 


inflorescence  of  this  species  is  well  shown  in  the  pic- 
ture of  Cuthbert,  a  variety  which  appears  to  closely 
represent  in  all  particulars  the  true  Rubus  strlgosus. 
Hansell  also  appears  to  be  E.  strigosus.  The  wild 
plant  is  densely  clothed  with  weak  bristles,  but  these 


THE    FOUR    TYPES 


293 


mostly  disappear  iu  cultivation.  They  sometimes  per- 
sist near  the  base  of  the  cane,  and  traces  of  them  can 
be  seen  in  the  inflorescence.  I  have  a  white -fruited 
raspberry,  which  is  Ruins  strigostts.  The  stems  are 
whitish.  The  leaves  also  possess  a  curious  dentation, 


the  teeth  being  rounded  and  tipped  with  a  short  cusp, 
but  I  am  not  sure  that  this  is  a  constant  character,  or 
that  the  variety  possesses  any  other  distinguishing 
mark  than  albinism. 

Rufais   Idaus,   Linnaeus    (European    Raspberry). 
Plant    usually   stiff  and    erect,    usually   stronger   than 


294    THE  EVOLUTION  OF  OUR  NATIVE  FRUITS 

R.  strlgosus,  the  stems  bearing  nearly  straight  slender 
prickles  or  weak  bristles,  and  usually  light -colored ; 
inflorescence  sub -corymbose  — the  pedicels  short,  and 
aggregated  above,  where  they  are  erect  or  ascending; 
fruit  large  and  broad,  appearing  more  or  less  contin- 
uously throughout  the  summer,  purple  or  yellowish, 
firmer  than  that  of  R.  strigosus  ;  calyx  glandless.  The 
raspberries  belonging  to  this  species  are  usually  ten- 
der in  the  North,  as  we  have  seen,  and  they  have  not 
been  grown  to  any  extent  since  the  introduction  to 
cultivation  of  the  native  species.  Here  belong  the 
Fontenay,  Antwerps,  Fastolf,  Brinckle's  Orange,  and 
their  kin.* 

These  descriptions  and  figures  show  that  the  purple- 
cane  or  Ritbus  neglectus  class  is  intermediate  between 
the  black -cap  and  true  red  raspberries.  The  type  has 
no  characters  which  are  not  found  in  one  or  both  of 
the  other  two.  Neither  has  it  any  normal  or  contin- 
uous range,  but  occurs  where  the  black  and  red  spe- 
cies are  associated.  All  this  points  strongly  to  hybrid- 
ity;  and  there  is  now  sufficient  accumulation  of  exper- 
imental evidence  to  prove  a  hybrid  origin  for  these 
berries. 

*  Card,  who  has  given  much  thought  to  the  raspberries,  gives  me  the  follow- 
ing contrasts  of  the  two  red-fruited  species: 

I{iil>us  Idams. — Plant  usually  stiff,  erect,  and  light-colored,  the  main  stems 
bearing  nearly  straight  slender  prickles ;  flowering  shoots,  petioles,  veins,  pedi- 
cels and  calyx  finely  pubescent,  but  not  glandular,  and  sparsely  beset  with  firm 
recurved  prickles;  leaves  thicker  than  in  R.  strigosus,  whitened  downy  beneath 
and  usually  somewhat  wrinkled;  calyx  tomentose;  fruit  dark  red  or  yellow, 
produced  more  or  less  continuously  throughout  the  season. 

R.  strigosus.— Stems  more  slender  than  R.  Idceus,  beset  with  stiff,  straight 
prickles,  usually  brown  or  reddish  brown,  somewhat  glaucous;  flowering  shoots, 
pedicels,  calyx  and  petioles  hirsute  with  glandular-tipped  hairs  in  the  wild 
type,  though  largely  disappearing  in  cultivation;  calyx  slightly  pubescent  or 
hirsute;  fruit  light  red,  rarely  yellow,  produced  less  continuously  than  in 
X.  Idceus. 


RESUME  295 

The  salient  points  in  our  raspberry  history,  then, 
are  these  :  The  Old  World  berry  was  early  introduced 
and  widely  tested,  but  it  proved  to  be  tender,  and  is 
now  known  in  this  country  only  in  the  gardens  of 
amateurs.  The  varieties  which  we  now  grow  are  all 
derived  from  our  native  species.  The  first  of  these 
native  berries  to  be  domesticated  appears  to  have  been 
a  natural  hybrid  between  the  wild  black  and  the  wild 
red,  and  to  have  come  into  cultivation  about  1825. 
This  hybrid  class,  which  seems  to  be  the  most  rromis 
ing  type  of  American  berries,  was  not  recognized  as  dis- 
tinct until  Fuller  denned  his  purple -cane  group  in 
1867;  in  1869,  Peck  founded  a  new  species  of  rubus  on 
it,  calling  it  Rubus  neglectus;  in  1890  the  purple-cane 
raspberries  and  Rubus  neglectus  were  determined  to  be 
of  similar  type  and  origin.  The  first  direct  effort  at 
improving  the  native  berry  was  the  introduction  of  a 
promising  wild  Ohio  berry  in  1832  by  Nicholas  Long- 
worth,  and  this  berry  subsequently  came  to  be  known 
as  Ohio  Everbearing.  The  chief  merit  of  this  first 
cultivated  black -cap,  in  the  eyes  of  its  disseminators, 
was  its  habit  of  bearing  a  second  crop  of  fruit  in  the 
fall,  a  feature  which  is  by  no  means  uncommon  in  the 
black  raspberries.  This  Ohio  is  probably  no  longer 
cultivated,  but  there  is  another  Ohio  raspberry,  of  later 
origin,  which  is  widely  grown.  The  general  influence 
of  amelioration  in  enlarging  the  fruit  and  condensing 
the  cluster  is  shown  in  Fig.  55.  The  Gregg  is  a  fail- 
example  of  the  improved  black-cap,  although  a  recent 
variety  has  brought  the  size  of  individual  berries  to  an 
inch  in  length  and  three  inches  in  circumference  at 
the  base.  The  domestication  of  the  true  wild  red 
raspberry  began  shortly  before  1860.  But  the  red 


296 


THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 


type  which  is  most  productive  of  good  and  various 
forms  is  the  purple -cane  group,  which  we  have  already 
discussed. 

There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  much  greater 


Fig.  58.    A  garden  hybrid.    Gregg  X  Shaffer. 

results  are  possible  in  the  improvement  of  the  Ameri- 
can raspberries  than  have  yet  been  obtained.  The 
European  raspberry  is  still  superior  in  size  and  quality, 
but  if  it  has  been  possible  to  derive  the  varied  garden 


OTHER    RASPBERRIES  297 

berries  of  the  Old  World  from  a  single  species,  still 
greater  results  may  be  expected  from  the  ameliora- 
tion of  two  species  which  freely  hybridize. 


Outlying  Types 

The  Salmon -berry  of  the  Pacific  coast  has  come 
into  cultivation  within  the  last  very  few  years  as  a 
fruit  plant.  The  best  type  is  Rubus  Nutkanus  var. 
vclutinus.  Charles  Howard  Shinn,  of  the  California 
Experiment  Station,  writing  in  "Garden  and  Forest" 
in  1894,  says  that  this  plant  "belongs  more  distinctly 
to  the  northern  California  coast,  where  it  is  highly 
esteemed,  but  it  does  not  grow  well  elsewhere." 
Wickson,  in  "California  Fruits,"  says  that  the  variety 
"thrives  best  in  the  upper  coast  counties,  and 
efforts  to  introduce  it  as  a  commercial  fruit  generally 
throughout  the  state  have  not  proved  successful." 
Ruins  Nutkanus  itself  ranges  from  northern  Michigan 
to  Alaska  and  New  Mexico,  always  being  a  boreal, 
subalpine  or  highland  plant.  It  is  closely  allied  to 
the  common  flowering -raspberry,  or  Rubus  odoratus,  of 
the  East,  from  which  it  differs  chiefly  in  having 
white  flowers,  a  less  dense  clothing  of  glandular 
hairs,  less  acuminate  lobes  to  the  large  leaves,  and  a 
larger  fruit.  It  bears  a  large  and  sweet  hemispherical 
red  fruit.  This  species  itself,  as  well  as  the  variety 
velutinus,  is  recommended  for  cultivation.  Both  are 
known  as  Salmon -berries. 


VI 

EVOLUTION  OF  BLACKBERRY  AND  DEW- 
BERRY CULTURE 

NORTH  AMERICA  is  the  only  country  which  can  boast 
of  the  cultivation  of  blackberries  and  dewberries  for 
their  fruits.  The  hedges  of  Europe  are  full  of  black- 
berries, and  many  of  the  bushes  produce  excellent 
fruit,  but  they  are  too  common  and  the  bushes  too 
vicious  and  wayward  to  attract  the  cultivator.  Now 
and  then  bushes  are  transplanted  to  the  gardens,  but 
there  appear  to  be  no  named  varieties.  "Nowhere  in 
the  three  kingdoms,"  writes  Grindon  in  his  "Fruits 
and  Fruit -Trees,"  "is  it  more  plentiful  or  of  finer 
quality  than  in  the  southern  parts  of  Ireland.  Yet 
there,  this  natural  gift  of  the  soil,  untaxed,  uncharged 
for,  'without  money  and  without  price,'  while  it  might 
be  made  a  source  of  immense  and  permanent  wealth  to 
the  poorer  inhabitants,  is  left  wholly  untouched ;  and 
this  when  we  are  sending  millions  of  money  every 
year  to  foreign  countries  for  fruits  that  have  not  half 
the  intrinsic  worth  of  the  ill -requited  Rnbus  fruti- 
cosus."  Hogg,  in  his  great  English  "Fruit  Manual," 
does  not  mention  the  blackberry. 

"Perhaps  it  would  be  casting  discredit  on  the 
worthy  ancestors  who  braved  so  many  dangers  in  the 
settlement  of  our  country  to  charge  them  with  undue 
conservatism,"  writes  Professor  Card,  in  a  sketch  of 
the  blackberry,  in  "American  Gardening,"  "yet  it  can 
(298) 


BLACKBERRY    HISTORY  299 

hardly  be  doubted  that  men  who  would  brave  the 
uncertainties,  not  to  say  terrors,  of  an  ocean  voyage 
on  an  almost  unknown  sea,  and  the  settlement  of  a 
new  country  peopled  with  savages  of  unknown  traits 
and  tendencies,  rather  than  surrender  ideas  which  they 
cherished,  would  not  be  quick  to  form  new  ones. 
Hence  we  can  readily  conclude  that  the  blackberry 
of  America  was  to  them  much  what  the  blackberry  of 
England  had  been — simply  a  wild  bramble,  to  be 
destroyed  when  possible  and  replaced  by  something 
better,  and  whose  fruit  was  to  be  gathered  at  will. 
Moreover,  to  cultivate  a  fruit  which  was  so  readily 
obtained  in  abundance  for  the  gathering  would  have 
been  folly  to  them,  when  many  other  things  conducive 
to  their  safety  and  comfort  were  so  much  more  needed. 
As  time  went  on,  however,  this  gratuitous  feast  of 
nature,  provided  for  the  fostering  of  'infant  indus- 
tries,' began  to  diminish,  and  the  demand  of  growing 
cities  for  increased  quantities  of  fruit  doubtless  led  to 
the  idea  of  cultivating  the  blackberry  among  the  rest. 
Just  when  this  state  of  affairs  was  reached  it  is  impos- 
sible to  say,  but  evidently  not  until  quite  late  in  our 
national  development,  for  the  blackberry  does  not 
seem  to  have  begun  to  receive  much  notice  or  to  be 
talked  about  in  the  horticultural  journals  until  about 
1850.  From  'Hovey's  Magazine  of  Horticulture,'  it 
appears  that  Capt.  Josiah  Lovett,  of  Beverly,  Mass., 
figured  prominently  in  introducing  it  to  cultivation. 
Even  then,  as  with  many  other  good  and  useful  things, 
first  impressions  were  unfavorable.  Of  course,  the 
first  effort  would  naturally  be  to  bring  plants  which 
bore  the  most  promising  fruit  from  the  woods  and 
clearings,  and  set  them  in  the  garden.  This  attempt 


300         THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE     FRUITS 

to  tame  the  wild  protege  of  the  forest  did  not  often 
prove  satisfactory.  These  plants  evidently  did  not 
take  kindly  to  the  refinements  of  civilization,  and 
longed  for  their  free  and  easy  life  of  the  wood.  Cap- 
tain Lovett  reports  repeated  failures  in  trying  to  get 
good  berries  by  this  method.  He  persevered  for  five 
years,  and  at  last  gave  up  in  despair,  about  1840,  and 
surrendered  this  wild  gypsy  of  the  fruits  to  its  native 
haunts  as  untamable.  In  spite  of  these  discouraging 
results  he  evidently  did  not  give  up  the  dream  of  a 
cultivated  blackberry,  for  Downing  gives  him  the 
credit  of  having  introduced  the  Dorchester,  which  in 
time  proved  so  valuable,  although  according  to  Mar- 
shall P.  Wilder,  as  reported  in  the  'Transactions  of 
the  Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society'  for  1883, 
p.  129,  it  was  brought  to  notice  by  Eliphalet  Thayer, 
who  first  exhibited  it  before  that  society,  August  7, 
1841. 

"But  the  first  introductions  to  cultivation,  the 
Dorchester  and  New  Rochelle,  were  not  calculated  to 
bring  swift  and  lasting  popularity  to  the  blackberry 
as  a  garden  fruit,  for  although  large  and  attractive, 
their  habit  of  turning  black  before  they  are  ripe  nearly 
always  led  to  their  being  gathered  and  eaten  while 
green,  and  their  consequent  condemnation  as  sour  and 
poor  in  quality.  Moreover,  their  culture,  being  little 
understood,  led  to  frequent  failures  and  unsatisfactory 
results,  while  their  propensity  to  persist  and  spread, 
aided  by  their  unmerciful  thorns,  conspired  to  render 
them  a  terror  to  many  timid  gardeners.  In  spite  of 
all  this,  the  blackberry  has  steadily  pushed  its  way 
into  prominence,  until  it  is  to-day  one  of  our  most 
satisfactory  and  profitable  crops.  Here,  as  with  all 


EARLY    HISTORY  301 

other  fruits,  we  are  far  from  attaining  perfection. 
We  have  no  ideal  variety.  If  we  demand  the  best  in 
point  of  hardiness,  we  must  yield  in  size  and  quality; 
if  delicacy  of  flavor  is  the  desideratum,  something  else 
will  be  deficient.  Yet  to  stand  by  a  well -grown  row 
of  Early  Cluster,  for  example,  to  see  its  glistening 
sprays  of  glossy  black  hanging  in  such  graceful  pro- 
fusion, to  gather  its  magnificent  berries  and  to  test 
their  sweet  and  melting  quality,  just  like  those  finest 
and  ripest  ones  you  used  now  and  then  to  chance 
upon  in  some  wooded  nook  which  everybody  else  had 
missed,  is  to  forget  for  the  time  being  that  there  is 
anything  further  to  be  desired  in  a  blackberry.  Still, 
we  have  reason  to  hope  that  the  achievements  of  this 
energetic  and  vigorous  pomological  youth  are  but  an 
omen  of  what  is  yet  to  come." 

The  blackberry  is  not  mentioned  by  William  Prince 
in  his  "Treatise  on  Horticulture,"  published  in  1828, 
nor  in  his  son's  "Pomological  Manual,"  either  in  the 
first  edition,  1831,  or  in  the  second,  1832.  Kenrick, 
in  "New  American  Orchardist,"  1833,  mentions  the 
blackberry  as  being  worthy  of  cultivation,  and  remarks 
that  plants  were  then  occasionally  transplanted  to  gar- 
dens. Speaking  of  the  wild  "bush  blackberry,"  he 
says:  "This  plant  thrives  in  a  rich,  moist,  sandy 
loam,  and  is  often  cultivated  in  gardens,  where  its 
fruit  is  much  improved  in  size,  and  its  crops  very 
abundant."  "It  is  singular,"  he  says,  "that  a  fruit  so 
productive  as  the  tall  blackberry  should  be  so  little 
cultivated."  He  also  speaks  of  the  "trailing  black- 
berry," and  the  "white -fruited  bramble."  William 
Parry,  of  New  Jersey,  says  that  about  1835  he 
"planted  a  patch  of  blackberries  for  market,  and 


302         THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

continued  to  increase  the  quantity  until  we  got  more 
than  fifty  acres."  He  mentions  no  varieties,  however, 
and  it  is  probable  that  his  plantations  had  not  reached 
great  size  before  1860.  It  is  likely  that  he  began 
with  the  wild  berry.  The  New  Rochelle  (or  Lawton) 
and  the  Dorchester  appear  to  have  been  the  first 
named  sorts  introduced  to  cultivation.  The  Dor- 
chester was  first  brought  to  notice  in  1841,  before 
the  Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society. 

"  The  first  thing  we  find  to  notice  in  the  exhibitions 
of  1841,"  runs  the  account  in  the  history  of  the  Society, 
"is  the  high -bush  blackberry  cultivated  by  Eliphalet 
Thayer  in  his  garden,  where  it  attracted  much  attention 
from  its  large  and  beautiful  appearance."  It  was  about 
1850  that  the  variety  was  introduced  into  cultivation 
under  a  name.  In  1857  "the  Lawton  blackberry  was 
exhibited  and  carefully  tested  in  comparison  with  the 
Dorchester  (as  the  improved  high -bush  was  now 
called),  the  opinion  being-  unanimously  in  favor  of  the 
latter."  This  berry,  which  surpassed  all  others  in 
popularity  until  1870,  was  found  in  the  town  of 
New  Rochelle,  New  York,  by  Lewis  A.  Seacor.  The 
Holcomb,  brought  to  public  notice  in  1855  by  E. 
A.  Holcomb,  Granby,  Connecticut,  was  also  one  of  the 
famous  old  berries.  Wilson's  Early,  of  which  I  shall 
speak  later,  was  known  as  early  as  1854.  It  may  be 
said  that  the  blackberry  began  to  attract  attention  as 
a  cultivated  fruit  between  1850  and  1860.  Fuller 
enumerates  eighteen  varieties  of  fruit -bearing  black- 
berries in  his  "Small  Fruit  Culturist,"  in  1867. 

The  blackberry  is  now  extensively  grown  in  the 
northern  states,  some  farmers  cultivating  as  high  as 
forty  and  fifty  acres,  and  the  fruit  is  much  esteemed, 


THE    MALIGNED    BLACKBERRY  303 

although  the  cultivation  of  it  did  not  begin  to  attract 
much  attention  until  about  twenty  years  ago.  In  the 
southern  states  it  is  rarely  cultivated,  because  it  grows 
in  such  profusion  on  the  abundant  wild  lands. 
There  is  no  bush -fruit  which  is  capable  of  yielding 
greater  profit.  It  is  the  last  of  the  small  fruits  to 
ripen,  and  when  it  is  well  grown  it  affords  a  luscious 
addition  to  the  dessert  of  midsummer.  Some  of  my 
readers  will  at  once  take  issue  with  me  respecting  the 
lusciousness  of  the  blackberry,  and  we  may  as  well 
argue  the  subject  to  a  finish  while  we  are  in  the 
mood.  In  justification  of  my  position,  I  shall  say 
that  those  persons  who  do  not  like  the  garden  black- 
berry have  probably  never  eaten  a  ripe  one.  Those  red 
and  juiceless  objects  which  one  finds  frying  in  the 
sun  and  patronized  by  flies  in  front  of  grocery  stores 
are  not  the  fruits  about  which  I  am  writing.  They 
might  have  been  green  berries  or  red  berries,  but  they 
were  never  ripe  blackberries.  There  is  no  berry  fruit 
grown  which  sooner  deteriorates  after  picking,  and  few 
which  are  necessarily  picked  in  such  unfit  condition. 
The  blackberry  is  not  ripe  simply  because  it  is  black; 
it  must  be  soft,  and  it  must  drop  into  the  hand  when 
the  cluster  is  shaken.  In  this  condition  it  is  full  of 
the  sweetness  and  aroma  of  midsummer.  It  is  our 
most  delicious  bush -fruit.  Of  course,  such  berries  as 
these  never  find  their  way  to  the  market,  and  hence  it 
comes  that  my  reader  who  has  never  grown  the  fruit 
is  still  wincing  in  memory  of  the  unbearable  acid  of 
the  blackberry.  Then,  there  are  those  who  declare  that 
the  tame  berry  is  intolerably  sourer  than  the  wild  one. 
It  is  true  that  it  is  more  juicy  when  well  grown,  and 
this  juice  is  very  sour  until  the  berry  is  soft  to  the  core. 


304          THE     EVOLUTION     OP     OUR     NATIVE     FRUITS 

But  the  flavor  of  the  wild  berry  is  usually  quite  as  much 
a  compound  of  pleasant  memories  of  youthful  associa- 
tions and  stimulating  adventures  as  it  is  of  sweet- 
ness and  flavor ;  and  then,  when  one  picks  wild  berries 
he  always  selects  the  ripest  and  the  best,  and  these 
become  the  standard  with  which  he  compares  the  un- 
timely fruits  which  he  buys  of  the  groceryman.  I  also 
held  tenaciously  to  the  opinion  that  the  tame  berry  is 
inferior  to  the  wild  one  until,  a  few  years  ago,  I  visited 
the  wild  patch  in  which  grew  those  incomparable  ber- 
ries of  my  boyhood.  But  I  found  the  berries  scant  and 
seedy,  many  of  them  inexcusably  sour,  and  the  briers 
intolerable.  I  came  back  to  my  Agawams  with  relish, 
and  they  are  to  this  day  my  ideal  of  summer  fruits. 

What  a  silent  evolution  the  blackberry  has  under- 
gone !  It  is  not  yet  fifty  years  since  the  first  named 
blackberry,  the  Dorchester,  was  introduced  to  general 
notice,  and  ,in  1875  that  the  New  Rochelle,  or  Lawton 
was  exhibited  before  the  Massachusetts  Horticultural 
Society;  and  thereupon  blackberry  culture  began  to  at- 
tract wide  attention  in  the  country.  The  Lawton  held 
undisputed  sway  until  it  was  superseded  by  the  Kitta- 
tinny  some  ten  or  fifteen  years  later.  The  Kittatinny, 
in  turn,  gave  way  to  the  Snyder  in  about  ten  or  fifteen 
years,  and  this  latter  variety  is  now  the  leading  com- 
mercial blackberry.  In  the  meantime,  however,  a  host 
of  varieties  had  appeared,  very  many  of  them  wildings 
or  chance  bushes  found  in  fence -rows,  but  so  quietly 
have  they  come  in  that  no  one  has  been  sufficiently 
attracted  by  them  to  enquire  minutely  into  their 
genesis  or  to  attempt  to  classify  them  into  botanical 
groups.  In  spite  of  all  the  attention  given  to  it,  the 
blackberry  is  still  a  neglected  and  unknown  fruit  ! 


LONG -CLUSTER    TYPE  305 

The  botanical  features  of  the  blackberry  are  obscure 
and  variable.  This  is  true  of  the  genus  Rubus  as  a 
whole,  but  particularly  of  the  groups  which  comprise 
the  blackberries  and  dewberries.  It  is  probable  that 
no  two  monographers  will  ever  agree  upon  the  limits  of 
the  species  and  natural  varieties  in  these  groups. 
Some  classification  of  these  forms  must  be  made,  how- 
ever, before  we  can  understand  the  evolution  of  the 
garden  types,  and  I  therefore  ask  the  reader's  forbear- 
ance if  I  seem  to  refine  this  discussion  beyond  the 
needs  of  a  popular  narrative. 

The   High -bush   Blackberry  and   Us  Kin 

The  commonest  blackberry  of  North  America  is  an 
upright  and  very  thorny  and  villous  bush,  which  pro- 
duces a  long  raceme  of  flowers  and  fruit.  The  type 
of  this  species  may  be  assumed  to  be  that  shown  in 
Figs.  59  and  60. 

It  is  often  known  as  the  "high-bush  blackberry." 
The  particular  marks  of  this  plant  are  the  tall  stature; 
the  long  stalks  to  the  leaves  and  the  leaflets;  the  long- 
ovate,  rather  thin  and  shallow -toothed  pointed  leaflets; 
the  very  long,  open  and  leafless  simple  raceme,  with  the 
slender  branchlets  or  pedicels  standing  off  from  the  cen- 
tral stem  at  a  very  obtuse  angle.  The  lowest  flowers  in 
the  raceme  open  first.  The  calyx -lobes  are  long  and 
narrow.  The  fruits  are  oblong  and  thimble -like,  firm, 
aromatic  and  sweet  when  ripe.  In  cultivation,  this 
type  of  blackberry  is  represented  by  the  Taylor  and 
Ancient  Briton.  For  horticultural  purposes  the  group 
may  be  called  the  "Long -cluster  Blackberries. "* 

"This  classification  was  first  proposed  in  Bull.  99,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  (1895). 
T 


Fig.  59.    High-bush  blackberry.     (Rubus  villosus  of  American  botar 
but  now  to  be  called  Rubus  nigrobaccus.)    X  two-thirds. 


SHORT -CLUSTER    TYPES 


307 


A  closely  related  form,  common  in  open  and  dryish 
places,  is  a  bush  generally  only  two  or  three  feet 
high,  bearing  a  short 
cluster  of  small 
roundish  mostly  loose- 
grained  fruits.  The 
varieties  of  this  type 
have  a  strong  ten- 
dency to  produce  a 
few  later  fruits  on 
the  tips  of  the  new 
growth.  These  late 
fruits  often  ripen  as 
late  as  the  first  week 
in  September.  The 
leaflets  are  broader, 
more  abruptly 
pointed,  usually 
thicker  and  shorter- 
stalked,  and  generally 
very  coarsely  and  un- 
evenly serrate  or  even 
jagged.  This  is  the 
commonest  form  of 
blackberry  in  gar- 
dens, and  includes 
such  varieties  as  New 
Rochelle  or  Lawtou, 
Kittatinny,  Snyder, 
Agawam,  Erie,  and 
Minnewaski.  Typical 
clusters  of  this  group  are  shown  in  Figs.  61,  62.  It 
is  comparatively  few -fruited,  leafy,  the  stems  oblique 


308         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

rather  than  spreading,  the  topmost  fruits  more  or 
less  aggregated.  The  fruits  are  rounder  than  in  the 
Long -cluster  group,  the  drupelets  larger  and  mostly 
softer  and  less  uniform  in  arrangement.  This  type  I 
have  designated  the  "Short -cluster  Blackberries." 


i  ig.  61.    Snyder.    One  of  the  short-cluster  types.    Full  size. 

This  group  is  the  most  prolific  in  cultivated  varieties. 
One  of  the  recent  garden  forms  is  shown  in  Fig.  63. 
A  third  type  of  blackberry  comprises  dwarf,  strict, 
leafy  bushes,  generally  growing  on  dryish  soils  from 
New  Brunswick  to  Kansas  and  the  Gulf,  bearing  the 
flowers  in  short  leafy  clusters  (Fig.  64),  the  leaflets 


LEAFY -CLUSTER     TYPES 


309 


small  and  firm,  more  or  less  wrinkled,  light  colored, 
persisting  long  in  the  fall,  smooth  or  nearly  so  when 
full  grown,  narrow,  coarsely  toothed.  Fruit  early, 


Pig.  62.    Agawam. 

roundish,  medium  to  small,  the  grains  large  and 
rather  loose.  This  is  a  very  leafy  plant,  and  is  prob- 
ably a  distinct  species  from  the  common  blackberry. 
In  cultivation,  it  is  known  in  the  Early  Harvest 


Fig.  63.     Mersereau  blackberry,  four-fifths  natural  size.     An  offspring,  by 
of  plants,  of  the  Snyder. 


MOUNTAIN    BLACKBERRY 


311 


(Figs.  64,  65),  Brunton's  Early,  and  possibly  Bangor. 
The  Dorchester,  as  I  have  seen  it  growing  in  late 
years,  also  belongs  here,  but  I  do  not  know  if  the 
plants  which  I  have  seen  are 
lineal  descendants  of  the  old 
Dorchester  introduced  by 
Captain  Lovett.  The  wild 
form  (Ruins  aryutus)  is  the 
most  widely  dis- 
tributed of  any  of 
our  blackberries. 
In  Texas  it  is  rep- 
resented by  the 
Dallas,  which  is 
the  best  medium - 
early  blackberry 
for  that  region . 
Varieties  of  this 
type  I  have  called 
the  "Leafy -cluster 
Blackberries." 

A    dwarfer    or 
more      condensed 
form  of   the  high- 
bush  blackberry  is 
abundant     in    the 
Adirondacks      and 
Allegheuies,    where    it    is 
often  known  as  the  moun- 
tain   blackberry.      It    has 
been  distinguished  by  Pro- 
fessor    Porter,    who    first 
described  it  as  Rubus  vil-        oneMr'Se 


312         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

losus  var.  montanus,  but  who  now  ("Bulletin  Torrey 
Club,"  xxiii.  p.  153)  regards  it  as  a  distinct  species, 
and  calls  it  Rubus  AHegheniensis .  "Its  slender  stalks 
are  less  prickly  than  those  of  the  common  blackberry," 
he  writes,  "and  usually  reddish,  but  the  chief  differ- 
ence lies  in  the  fruit,  which  is  much  smaller,  of 
oblong  shape,  often  narrowed  toward  the  apex  (thim- 
ble-like), scarcely  fleshy,  and  possessed  of  a  peculiar 
spicy  flavor."  The  flower  clusters  are  shorter  than 
those  of  the  typical  high -bush  blackberry,  but  they 
are  of  the  same  kind,  and  the  leaves  also  retain  the 
distinguishing  features  of  that  species.  It  is  probably 
only  a  mountain  or  highland  form  of  the  common 
blackberry. 

A  curious  variation  of  the  common  blackberry  is 
the  so-called  white  blackberry.  It  has  the  stems 
throughout  greenish  yellow;  leaflets  much  as  in  the 
common  blackberry  in  shape  and  dentation;  clusters 
long  and  bearing  simple  bracts,  hairy  and  glandular; 
fruit  small,  creamy  white  or  amber -colored.  I  have 
known  this  plant  from  childhood.  It  grew  sparingly 
in  the  woods  in  western  Michigan,  and  it  was 
occasionally  transferred  to  gardens.  In  one  garden, 
at  least,  it  has  grown  for  more  than  twenty  years, 
and  it  has  always  retained  its  characteristics.  There 
is  also  a  patch  of  it  along  an  old  roadside  in  cen- 
tral New  York,  where,  except  in  the  light  color  of 
the  foliage,  stems  and  fruits,  it  does  not  appear  to 
differ  from  the  normal  high -bush  blackberries  in  the 
neighborhood.  It  is  generally  distributed  from  New 
York  to  Michigan,  but  appears  to  be  very  local.  The 
white  blackberries  sometimes  advertised  by  nursery- 
men no  doubt  belong  here. 


LOOSE -CLUSTER    TYPES 


313 


Fig.  65.     Early  Harvest.    Half  size. 

Certain  cultivated  varieties,  which  I  have  called  the 
"Loose -cluster  Blackberries,"  differ  from  all  the  pre- 
ceding types.  The  class  is  characterized  by  a  low  and 
often  diffuse  growth,  broad,  jagged  and  notched  leaves, 
mostly  loose -grained,  roundish  or  roundish -oblong 


314         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

fruits,  which  are  sometimes  very  large,  and  particu- 
larly by  the  few  flowers  scattered  on  long  stems  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  canes.  Sometimes  the  canes 
have  a  distinct  tendency  to  root  at  the  tip.  The  vari- 
ous pictures  (Figs.  66-69)  show  the  features  of  this 
curious  tribe  of  berries. 

The  progenitor  of  these  loose -cluster  berries  was 
the  Wilson  Early,  which  was  discovered  in  the  wild 
about  1851,  by  John  Wilson,  Burlington,  New  Jersey. 
This  attracted  much  attention  in  New  Jersey,  but  it 
was  too  tender  for  New  York  and  New  England.  One 
of  the  men  to  bring  this  variety  into  great  promi- 
nence was  William  Parry,  a  nurseryman  and  fruit- 
grower of  Parry,  New  Jersey.  Fuller  says,  in  1867: 
"It  is  but  little  known,  except  in  the  vicinity  where 
it  originated.  Mr.  Win.  Parry,  John  S.  Collins,  Jas. 
S.  Williams,  and  a  few  other  fruit-growers  near  Phil- 
adelphia have  quite  extensive  plantations  of  this  va- 
riety, and  from  an  examination  of  the  fruit  the  past 
season,  I  conclude  that  it  will  prove  to  be  one  of  the 
most  valuable  varieties  yet  introduced."  Parry  was 
one  of  the  few  horticulturists  who  has  made  any 
definite  attempt  to  originate  or  breed  new  varieties  of 
blackberries.  I  give  his  own  history  of  these  efforts, 
as  told  in  "Fifty  Years  Among  Small  Fruits:" 

"In  1860  we  planted  seeds  of  the  New  Rochelle,  at 
that  time  the  largest  and  most  attractive  blackberry 
known,  but  no  attention  was  paid  to  crossing  the 
blossoms  with  another  variety,  and  there  was  no  im- 
provement in  the  young  seedlings,  which  bore  well  of 
large,  handsome  fruit,  very  acid  and  late  in  ripening. 
We  never  disposed  of  a  plant  of  them,  but  destroyed 
them  all,  as  they  were  not  of  much  value  compared  with 


Fig.  66.    Wild  blackberry-dewberry  hybrid,  from  central  New  York. 


316         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FEUITS 

the  celebrated  Wilson's  Early,  which  was  larger,  more 
productive,  and  more  than  a  week  earlier,  and  worth 
two  or  three  times  as  much  per  acre  as  any  other 
blackberry  then  known ;  and  in  1865  we  planted 
20,000  Wilson's  Early  for  market;  they  did  well, 
yielded  abundantly,  and  sold  readily  at  wholesale,  by 
the  wagon  load,  at  50  cents  per  quart,  and  were  sold 
at  retail  from  the  fruit  stands  at  $1.00  per  quart. 
The  plants  sold  at  $1,500.00  per  1,000  at  wholesale, 
and  retailed  at  from  $2.00  to  $3.00  each,  and  some 
more.  One  of  our  neighbors,  who  planted  seventy-five 
acres  of  Wilson's  Early  blackberries,  reported  his 
sales  of  fruit  for  several  years  about  1869  to  1872  at 
$20,000  to  $22,000  per  annum.  The  Wilson  Early  was 
the  most  valuable  blackberry  ever  grown  here  ;  yielded 
more  bushels  of  fruit  and  brought  more  dollars  than 
any  other  blackberry  ever  sent  to  Philadelphia  or 
New  York  since  we  have  been  in  the  business.  In 
1870  we  selected  a  healthy  young  Dorchester  and 
planted  in  same  hill  with  a  strong,  healthy  Wilson 
Early  for  breeders,  located  far  away  from  any  other 
blackberries.  They  have  done  well  together,  been  a 
mutual  help  to  each  other,  and  we  have  raised  many 
valuable  seedlings  from  them.  They  were  both  early; 
the  Wilson  produced  the  largest  berries,  the  Dorchester 
had  the  best  canes — strong,  upright  growers,  health y 
and  vigorous,  free  from  rust,  fungus  and  other  mala- 
dies so  very  destructive  among  some  blackberries. 
We  have  never  observed  any  defect  in  fruit  or  cane 
of  either  of  those  two  plants  that  have  grown  together 
now  for  fifteen  years,  and  we  believe  they  are  good 
stock  to  breed  from  yet. 

"In  1875  we  selected  some  of  the  largest,  best  and 


318         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

most  perfectly  developed  berries  from  the  Wilson 
Early  plant,  which  grew  in  same  hill  with  the  Dor- 
chester, planted  the  seed  first  in  greenhouse,  and  when 
large  enough  to  transplant  in  open,  field  were  set  in 
single  hills  four  feet  apart  in  nursery  row,  and  allowed 
to  remain  there  with  good  culture  and  pruning  for 
four  years,  until  the  true  character  of  each  was  de- 
veloped, and  one  proved  to  be  superior  to  all  the 
others,  producing  an  abundance  of  fruit,  larger  and 
earlier  than  its  parent,  the  Wilson  Early.  That  one 
best  plant  was  called  Wilson  Junior,  and  preserved 
for  propagation.  All  the  rest  of  that  family  of  plants 
were  destroyed.  The  Wilson  Junior  has  been  carefully 
propagated,  and  as  fast  as  the  young  canes  became  old 
enough  to  bear  fruit,  have  been  very  satisfactory,  and 
last  year  (1884)  one  acre  yielded  110%  bushels  of  fruit 
by  side  of  five  acres  of  Wilson  Early  in  same  field, 
with  similar  culture,  which  averaged  but  53  bushels, 
and  the  whole  crop  of  blackberries  in  the  county  of 
Burlington,  N.  J.,  is  reported  at  47  bushels  per  acre. 
The  fruit  was  large,  early  and  very  fine,  and  sold  better 
in  market  than  any  other  sent  from  the  Pomona  Nur- 
series, selected  berries  measuring  4%  inches  around 
lengthwise  by  3%  inches  crosswise.  Many  visitors 
called  to  see  them,  and  all,  so  far  as  we  know,  thought 
well  of  them.  *  *  *  * 

"In  1877  we  again  repeated  the  same  experiment, 
by  selecting  the  largest  and  most  perfect  berries  from 
the  Wilson  Early,  grown  by  side  of  the  Dorchester, 
planted  them  separately,  grew  them  four  years,  then 
selected  the  best  which  is  called  Eureka,  and  all  the 
rest  of  that  family  were  destroyed.  Of  the  Eureka 
we  have  propagated  several  thousand  plants.  They 


PARRY'S  EXPERIENCE  319 

are  good  market  berries,  large  and  early,  measure 
4  inches  around  lengthwise,  and  3%  crosswise ;  not 
quite  so  large  as  Wilson  Junior  ;  therefore  we  have 
not  disposed  of  or  parted  with  any  plants  of  Eureka, 
as  we  do  not  approve  of  adding  to  the  list  of  varie- 
ties without  gaming  any  new  and  valuable  qualities. 

"In  1879  we  extended  the  experiment  by  select- 
ing the  best  berries  from  both  plants,  set  the 
seedlings  in  rows  separately,  and  when  they  devel- 
oped their  fruits,  we  selected  two  from  the  Wilson 
Early  seedling,  called  Rioter  and  Farmer's  Glory ; 
also  two  from  the  Dorchester  seedling,  called  Gold 
Dust  and  Primordian.  All  the  other  seedlings  were 
destroyed.  Those  four  new  seedlings  were  satisfac- 
tory last  year  (1884),  bore  abundantly  of  large 
early  fruit.  The  Gold  Dust  was  remarkable  for  the 
short  time  in  which  the  whole  crop  was  ripening. 
The  first  picking  was  on  4th  of  July  and  the  last 
on  8th  of  July,  yielding  a  full  crop  of  fruit  in  that 
short  time.  In  1880  we  increased  the  number  of 
our  experimental  hills  for  breeders,  by  setting  one 
plant  of  Eureka  and  one  of  Wallace  in  same  hill; 
also  one  plant  of  Taylor's  Prolific  and  one  of  Eureka 
in  another  hill,  and  in  1883  gathered  the  best  berries 
from  all  four  varieties,  planted  the  seeds,  and  now 
[1885]  have  the  plants  growing  in  nursery  rows  set 
six  feet  apart  and  all  marked  with  the  name  of  both 
parents,  and  date,  for  future  reference."  Of  these 
types  of  varieties,  only  the  two  Wilsons  ever  gained 
much  prominence. 

The  Wilson  Early  and  Wilson  Junior  blackberries 
are  still  the  leading  varieties  of  the  loose -clustered 
type,  but  the  latter  is  so  nearly  like  the  former,  that 


Fig.  68.    Rathbuii  blackberry.    (X  two-thirds.) 


THE    HYBRID    TYPES  321 

the  two  are  not  generally  distinguished.  These  varie- 
ties are  early  and  productive,  and  where  the  winters 
are  not  too  severe,  or  when  the  bushes  are  laid  down 
in  winter,  they  are  satisfactory  and  profitable.  Some 
six  or  seven  years  ago  a  curious  plant  was  noticed  in 
a  patch  of  Wilson  Early  belonging  to  John  Ster- 
ling, Benton  Harbor,  Mich.,  where  this  variety  is 
now  extensively  grown.  This  plant  was  almost  com- 
pletely thornless,  and  the  leaves  were  broad  and 
rounded.  It  was,  no  doubt,  simply  a  seedling  of  the 
Wilson  Early.  It  is  now  called  the  Sterling  Thornless 
blackberry.  The  latest  addition  to  this  group  of 
blackberries  is  the  Rathbun  (Figs.  68,  69),  which 
originated  with  Alvin  F.  Rathbun,  Smith's  Mills, 
Chautauqua  county,  N.  Y.,  and  which  was  intro- 
duced to  the  trade  bj"  James  Vick's  Sons,  in  1894. 
This  has  a  habit  of  rooting  very  freely  from  the  tips, 
and  the  fruit-cluster  is  very  loose,  with  usually  long 
fruit-stems.  It  is  the  widest  departure  from  the  high- 
bush  type  of  any  cultivated  blackberry  which  I  have 
seen. 

What  is  the  origin  of  these  loose -cluster  black- 
berries? Horticulturists  have  said  that  they  are 
hybrids  between  the  common  blackberry  and  the  dew- 
berry, but  botanists  have  not  investigated  them,  and 
they  have  not  admitted  hybrids  between  these  very 
unlike  species.  But  the  horticulturists  are  right.  In 
1867,  Fuller  thought  that  "it  is  probably  a  sport  of 
the  trailing  blackberry  [dewberry],  or  a  cross  between 
it  and  the  high -bush."  These  hybrids  of  the  black- 
berry and  the  dewberry  are  common  enough  in  central 
New  York,  although  a  positive  statement  that  such 
natural  hybrids  do  exist  appears  not  to  have  been  made 


322          THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE     FRUITS 

until  1895  (in  Bulletin  99  of  the  Cornell  Experiment 
Station).  One  is  soon  able  to  recognize  them  by 
their  low,  or  diffuse,  or  even  half -trailing  habit,  the 
broad,  jagged  and  short -stalked  leaflets,  the  loose, 


Fig.  69.    Showing  how  the  Rathbun  propagates  by  means  of  tips. 

indefinite  or  scattered  inflorescence,  and  the  short, 
irregular  fruits.  One  occasionally  finds  them  rooting 
at  the  tips,  like  a  dewberry  (Fig.  69),  and  sending 
up  strong  blackberry -like  shoots.  It  is  singular  that 
promising  natural  hybrid  tribes  should  occur  in 
various  genera,  as  the  native  plums,  apples,  rasp- 
berries and  blackberries.  (See  page  381.) 

The  thornless  blackberry  has  lately  come  into 
prominence  among  botanists.  (See  Figs.  92,  93.)  It 
was  thus  described  by  the  writer  some  years  ago  :* 

"A  peculiar  bush  blackberry,  with  long  .wand -like 
canes,  and  entirely  destitute  of  thorns,  was  collected 
a  year  or  more  ago  by  Dr.  C.  F.  Millspaugh  in  West 

*Agric.  Sci.  vi.  66  (1892). 


MILLSPAUGH'S  BLACKBERRY  323 

Virginia,  at  an  altitude  of  3,500  feet.  It  appears  to 
be  specifically  distinct  from  the  common  bush  black- 
berry, and  it  has  recently  been  described  as  a  new 
species  by  Dr.  Britton  under  the  name  of  Rubus 
Millspaugliii  (Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club,  xviii.  366,  Dec. 
1891).  Dr.  Britton  knew  no  other  specimens  than 
those  of  Millspaugh,  except  a  single  leaf  of  it  in  Lin- 
naeus' herbarium,  in  London,  collected  by  Kalm  over 
a  century  ago.*  I  am  inclined  to  think,  however,  that 
the  species  is  generally  distributed  over  the  northeastern 
states.  I  have  recently  had  good  specimens  of  it  from 
the  highest  mountains  of  the  Smoky  range,  North 
Carolina,  above  6,000  feet,  collected  by  Chas.  A.  Kofoid 
and  Mr.  Beardslee.  In  Walter  Deane's  herbarium,  at 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  there  is  a  specimen  of  it  from  Ice 
Gulch,  Randolph,  N.  H.  (White  Mountains),  collected 
by  J.  R.  Churchill  in  1889,  and  Mr.  Deane  says  that 
there  is  another  specimen  in  the  Gray  herbarium  from 
the  Keweenaw  peninsula,  Lake  Superior,  collected  by 
J.  W.  Robbins  many  years  ago.  I  have  had  canes  of 
a  perfectly  smooth  blackberry  sent  me  from  northern 
Michigan  (near  Grand  Traverse),  and  I  have  no  doubt 
that  they  belong  to  this  species,  as  the  angular  and 
furrowed,  perfectly  smooth  canes  of  Rubus  Millspaughii 
are  easily  distinguished  from  those  of  the  common 
blackberry.  From  all  these  records,  it  would  appear 
that  the  species  occurs  upon  our  northern  borders,  and 
that  it  follows  the  mountains  southwards ;  and  this 
accounts  for  the  finding  of  the  specimen  by  Kalm,  who 
traveled  in  Canada. 

"Now,  as  the  canes  of  Rubus  Millpaughii  are  per- 

*  Linnaeus  described  the  plant  us   Jtubn*   Canadenti*,  and  that  name  must 
replace  R.  Millspaughii,  as  explained  in  the  succeeding  pages.— I,.  H.  B.  1898. 


324         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

fectly  thornless,  it  is  important  that  horticulturists 
should  turn  their  attention  to  the  species  if  it  gives 
any  promise  of  good  fruit.  The  so-called  thornless 
blackberries  of  gardens  are  only  comparatively  unarmed 
forms  of  the  common  blackberry.  The  person  who 
sent  me  the  thornless  canes  from  northern  Michigan 
said  that  the  fruit  is  good.  Mr.  Kofoid,  who  collected 
the  specimens  in  North  Carolina,  sends  me  the  following 
note:  'It  seems  to  be  very  abundant  where  it  occurs, 
forming  dense  thickets  of  upright  stems  five  to  eight 
feet  in  height.  As  late  as  the  29th  of  August  we  found 
the  fruit  just  turning  a  faint  reddish  tinge,  and  quite 
palatable  and  sweet  to  a  hur.gry  man.  Natives  say 
that  the  fruit  becomes  ripe  and  black  in  September. 
The  berries  are  large,  long  and  slender  and  very 
sweet,  lacking  the  sharply  acid  or  bitterish  quality 
of  the  berries  of  the  lower  mountains.  There  are 
no  thorns  or  prickles.  One  can  go  through  the 
patches  unscathed.  You  may,  however',  find  a  few 
minute  prickles  on  the  mid -vein,  generally  of  the 
terminal  leaflet.'  This  is  certainly  a  promising 
account. 

"There  are  several  botanical  characters  which  dis- 
tinguish this  species  from  the  common  blackberry,  aside 
from  the  absence  of  thorns.  It  lacks  almost  entirely, 
except  on  some  of  the  young  shoots,  the  conspicuously 
pubescent  character  of  the  common  species.  The  leaves 
are  thin  and  the  leaflets  are  sharply  toothed  and  promi- 
nently long -pointed.  One  of  the  most  prominent 
characters  lies  in  the  leaflet -stalks.  Upon  vigorous 
shoots  the  leaflets  are  five,  and  the  three  upper  ones 
have  stalks  from  one  to  two  inches  long." 

It   is   now  known   that   this    interesting   species    is 


THE    TOPSY 


325 


distributed  from  Lake  Superior  to  the  mountains  of 
North  Carolina.  It  is  in  cultivation  in  the  Cornell 
gardens,  but  it  seems  to  have  little  merit  as  a  fruit 
plant.  It  will  not  be  surprising,  however,  if  good 


Fig.  70.    Topsy  blackberry.     Rubut  cunetfolius. 

varieties    are    found    in    the    wild    and    are   now   and 
then    introduced    into   cultivation. 

The  Topsy  blackberry  (Fig.  70)  is  a  stiff -growing 
and  exceedingly  thorny  bush,  belonging  to  still  another 
species,  the  Sand  blackberry,  or  Rubus  cuneifolnts. 
The  wild  plant  is  shown  in  Fig.  89.  The  fruits  have 


326    THE  EVOLUTION  OP  OUR  NATIVE  FRUITS 

large  and  loose,  very  black  drupelets,  and  they  are 
sour  even  when  soft,  and  are  not  aromatic.  The  drupe- 
lets cling  to  the  receptacle.  In  its  wild  state  the  Sand 
blackberry  produces  many  varieties  of  excellent  qual- 
ity, but  the  smallness  of  the  fruits  hinders  their  intro- 
duction into  cultivation. 

J.  T.  Lovett,  who  introduced  the  Topsy  blackberry, 
considers  it  (as  he  writes  me)  to  be  "a  hybrid  between 
the  Sand  blackberry  and  some  other  species,  perhaps 
the  dewberry,  or  probably  Wilson's  Early."  I  was 
long  inclined  to  accept  a  hybrid  origin  for  it,  but 
having  studied  the  Sand  blackberry  in  the  field,  from 
New  Jersey  to  Florida,  I  am  convinced  that  it  is  only 
a  direct  variation  of  Rubus  cuneifolius.  The  Topsy 
was  sent  to  Lovett  about  1884  by  a  man  in  south 
Jersey.  It  was  subsequently  sent  out  by  Childs  as 
the  Tree  blackberry.  Lovett  dubbed  it  Topsy,  because 
it  is  so  "wicked"  with  thorns.* 

Hybrids  between  the  raspberry  and  blackberry  have 
been  produced  artificially  by  several  persons.  The 
following  are  records  of  experiments  made  by  E.  S. 
Carman,  and  printed  in  "The  Rural  New-Yorker" 
of  various  dates: 

"In  the  summer  of  1886,  we  applied  pollen  of  rasp- 
berry flowers  to  the  stigmas  of  blackberry  flowers, 
and  vice  versa.  *  *  *  Our  work  was  continued 
assiduously  during  the  entire  period  when  blackberries 
and  raspberries  were  simultaneously  in  bloom.  Some 
twenty  seeds  formed  on  the  blackberries,  and  perhaps 
twice  as  many  on  the  raspberries.  All  were  planted, 
separately,  of  course,  in  shallow  boxes  of  mellow  soil, 
as  soon  as  they  were  taken  from  the  fruit.  In  many 

*  For  accounts  of  all  varieties  of  blackberries,  see  Card's  "Bush-Fruits." 


BLACKBERRY -RASPBERRY    HYBRIDS  327 

cases,  a  single  drupe  would  form;  sometimes  two  or 
three  —  rarely  more,  and  never  a  perfect  berry.  With- 
out any  experience  to  guide  us  in  raising  these  fruits 
from  seed,  we  unwisely  took  for  granted  that  the 
fresh  seed  would  sprout  in  a  few  weeks,  and  that  the 
plants  would  grow  to  a  size  which,  with  protection, 
might  be  carried  through  the  winter  out  of  doors. 
They  did  not  sprout,  however,  so  that  it  was  con- 
cluded to  bury  the  boxes  until  February,  and  thus 
expose  the  seeds  to  the  action  of  frost.  The  boxes 
were  removed  to  the  house  early  in  February  accord- 
ingly. Many  of  the  raspberry  seeds  sprouted  in  a 
short  time,  though  but  nine  lived  to  be  set  out  the 
ensuing  May  (1887).  The  blackberry  seeeds  did  not 
sprout  at  all. 

"The  Nine  Hybrid  Plants.— The  following  notes 
were  taken  last  October.  The  first  plant  is  3  feet 
high,  much  branched,  light  green  canes,  covered  with 
raspberry  prickles.  Leaflets  large,  with  an  occasional 
imperfect  5-pedate  leaf.  Under  side  of  leaf  glaucous. 
The  second  plant  is  3%  feet  high,  with  but  a  single 
stem  without  laterals,  and  nearly  without  prickles. 
Scarcely  any  bloom  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf. 
Leaflets  large  and  much  wrinkled,  as  in  the  foreign 
raspberry.  Stem  purplish.  The  third  is  a  puny  plant, 
about  9  inches  high,  with  the  prickles  of  a  rasp- 
berry, the  leaf  of  a  blackberry.  The  fourth  is  2% 
feet  high,  long  laterals,  purple  stem,  hooked  thorns, 
like  the  blackberry,  but  closer  together.  Leaflets 
small,  no  bloom  on  the  under  side.  Resembles  a 
blackberry  more  than  a  raspberry.  The  fifth  seems 
to  be  a  small,  sickly  raspberry,  with  slender,  close- 
jointed  stems.  The  sixth  seems  to  be  a  thornless 


328         THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

raspberry.  The  seventh  has  large,  wrinkled  leaflets, 
borne  on  two  stems  2%  feet  high.  The  stems  are 
light  green  on  one  side,  light  purple  on  the  other. 
Prickles  many  and  long,  but  slender  and  soft.  Very 
little  bloom  under  the  leaves.  A  vigorous  plant.  The 
eighth  has  leaves  resembling  the  blackberry,  and  with- 
out bloom.  There  were  several  pedate  leaves.  Prick- 
les hooked,  crowded  and  stiff.  It  is  very  branching, 
and  2%  feet  high.  Looks  like  a  blackberry.  The 
ninth  is  but  9  inches  high,  though  healthy.  It  resem- 
bles the  blackberry,  except  that  the  thorns  are  crowded 
and  there  are  no  pedate  leaves." — February  18,  1888. 

"In  one  box  we  have  seeds  of  the  raspberry  crossed 
with  the  blackberry;  in  another,  seeds  of  the  black- 
berry crossed  with  the  raspberry." — August  14,  1886. 

"Both  the  raspberry  and  blackberry  buds  were 
opened  and  the  anthers  removed  while  green.  Pollen 
from  each  was  applied  to  the  other,  and  carefully 
wrapped  up  in  tissue  paper,  to  prevent  contact  of  pol- 
len from  bees  or  wind.  About  fifteen  berries  formed 
from  this  hybridization,  three -fourths  on  the  rasp- 
berry and  the  remainder  on  the  blackberry.  The 
seeds  of  the  raspberry  have  already  been  sown,  and 
those  of  the  blackberries  are  to  be  planted  when 
ripe."— September  11,  1886.— By  Farm  Ed.  World. 

"Three  of  these  plants  have  fruited  the  present 
season.  The  first  is,  to  all  appearances,  a  raspberry. 
The  plant  is  very  vigorous,  the  leaves  very  large,  the 
canes  nearly  thornless,  the  berries  yellow,  of  medium 
size,  rather  soft  and  of  the  quality  of  the  Caroline. 
Imperfect  berries  were  noticed  here  and  there.  The 
second  bears  a  red  berry  of  the  same  color,  size  and 
quality  of  the  Hansell.  Some  of  these  berries  were 


BLACKBERRY -RASPBERRY    HYBRIDS  329 

also  observed  to  be  imperfect.  The  third  plant  re- 
sembles a  blackberry  in  every  way,  though  the  spines 
are  less  numerous  and  shorter.  Some  of  the  leaves 
consist  of  5-pedate  leaflets,  as  in  the  blackberry  pure 
and  simple.  The  back  part  of  the  leaves  has  none  of 
the  whitish  down  or  bloom  common  to  the  raspberry. 
The  canes  are  furrowed  as  in  the  blackberry.  The 
flowers  resemble  those  of  the  raspberry,  and  the  drupes 
separate  from  the  receptacle  as  in  the  raspberry. 

"The  best  berry  bore  5  drupes.  These  were  jet 
black,  of  large  size,  and  of  the  raspberry  flavor,  in  so 
far  as  could  be  judged.  It  will  be  remembered  that 
these  plants  all  came  from  raspberry  mothers.  If 
judged  from  the  past  season's  behavior,  it  will  appear 
that  little  is  to  be  hoped  from  this  hybridization.  We 
have  about  fifteen  plants  which  have  not  yet  fruited, 
besides  quite  a  number  of  hybrid  seeds  produced  the 
present  season." — Rural  New-Yorker,  Sept.  22,  1888. 

"Another  of  'The  Rural  New-Yorker's'  blackberry- 
raspberry  hybrids  fruited  during  the  past  season — and 
another  chance  to  record  a  failure.  The  plant 

is  strong  and  vigorous,  with  characteristics  both  of 
the  raspberry  and  blackberry.  It  resembles  the  black- 
berry, however,  in  most  respects,  though  distinctly  not 
a  blackberry.  There  was  not  a  perfect  berry  on  the 
plant.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  though  the  drupe- 
lets were  those  of  the  blackberry,  the  flower  of  the 
raspberry  was  pronounced.  We  have  a  dozen  of  these 
hybrids  which  have  not  yet  fruited,  but  those  which 
have  fruited  give  little  or  no  promise  that  anything 
of  value  will  ever  come  from  the  hybridization  beyond 
the  interesting  fact  itself."— Rural  New-Yorker, 
November  23,  1889. 


330          THE     EVOLUTION     OF     OUR    NATIVE     FRUITS 

The   Dewberries 

Within  the  Dast  few  years  several  varieties  of  dew- 
berries have  come  into  more  or  less  prominence.  The 
greatest  differences  of  opinion  exist  as  to  their  merits, 
and  few  systematic  attempts  have  been  made  to  deter- 
mine their  peculiarities  and  values.  Some  of  them 
must  possess  value  for  certain  purposes,  for  they 
have  been  strongly  recommended  by  many  growers 
and  dealers  ;  and  it  is  also  to  be  considered  that  the 
presumption  is  against  any  new  fruit,  especially  one 
which  has  been  rescued  from  the  fields,  and  any  com- 
mendation which  it  receives  from  honest  men  is  proof 
that  it  possesses  some  points  of  usefulness.  The 
histories  of  fruits  are  soon  lost,  and  all  definite 
knowledge  of  methods  of  variation  and  degrees  of 
improvement  is,  therefore,  impossible.  This  is  no- 
where better  illustrated  than  in  the  dewberries  them- 
selves, for  although  they  are  among  the  most  recent 
additions  to  our  fruits,  I  have  found  it  impossible 
to  learn  the  exact  histories  of  all  of  them. 

At  first  thought  it  seems  strange  that  such 
unqualified  encomiums  and  sweeping  condemnations 
could  be  bestowed  upon  any  fruit  as  have  fallen  to 
the  lot  of  the  dewberry.  But  there  are  reasons  for 
these  disagreements,  some  of  which  the  following 
pages  may  discover.  Most  fruits  receive  both  praise 
and  censure,  for  there  are  few  which  succeed  in 
all  parts  of  the  country  and  under  all  kinds  of 
management ;  and  if  the  fruit  is  wholly  new  in 
kind,  it  is  particularly  liable  to  be  misunderstood 
and  mismanaged.  But  it  further  turns  out,  upon 
investigation,  that  the  varieties  of  dewberries  are  very 


THE    DEWBERRY    TRIBES  331 

dissimilar,  and,  therefore,  not  always  comparable  with 
each  other  and  not  equally  adapted  to  given  con- 
ditions. In  fact,  they  represent  various  distinct  spe- 
cies, and  marked  natural  or  botanical  varieties.  It  is, 
therefore,  necessary,  before  proceeding  to  a  discussion 
of  their  horticultural  values,  to  distinguish  their 
botanical  characteristics.  A  few  years  ago,  I  made 
an  attempt  to  discover  the  botanical  features  of  the 
dewberries,  and  the  results  were  published  in  the 
"American  Garden"  for  November,  1890,  and  Feb- 
ruary, 1891,  the  former  issue  containing  the  first 
accurate  drawing  of  the  Lucretia.  A  horticultural 
and  botanical  monograph  of  the  dewberries  was  also 
the  subject  of  Bulletin  34  (November,  1891)  of  the 
Cornell  Experiment  Station  ;  and  a  subsequent  sketch 
was  made  in  Bulletin  117  of  same  station.  The  main 
features  of  the  present  account  of  the  dewberries 
are  drawn  from  those  papers. 

In  common  speech,  the  word  dewberry  is  applied 
to  any  trailing  blackberry.  There  are  several  distinct 
species  or  types  of  trailing  blackberries,  with  only 
the  most  prominent  of  which  we  need  to  concern  our- 
selves at  present.  It  would  seem  as  if  the  dewberries 
could  be  at  once  distinguished  from  the  true  or  bush 
blackberries  by  their  trailing  habit,  but  there  are 
forms  of  wild  blackberries  which  are  low  and  decum- 
bent, as  we  have  seen  in  the  account  of  the  hybrid 
blackberry -dewberry  tribe.  The  botanies  have  even 
described  a  true  trailing  form  of  the  bush  blackberry 
(var.  Jmmifusus),  but  this  variety  was  founded  upon 
a  dewberry  itself,  and  it  has  now  been  described  as  a 
distinct  species  under  the  name  of  Rubus  Bailey  anus. 
It  turns  out,  however,  that  it  was  described  so  long 


332        THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

ago  as  1823,  under  the  name  of  Eubus  Enslenii.  There 
is  no  true  trailing  form  of  the  bush  or  common 
blackberry  (page  352).  The  best  distinction  between 
the  dewberries  and  bush  blackberries  lies  in  the  inflo- 
rescence or  flower  clusters.  In  the  dewberries  the  flower 
clusters  are  cymose — the  center  flower  opening  first, — 
and  the  flowers  are  few  and  scattered.  In  the  black- 
berries, on  the  other  hand,  the  clusters  are  essentially 
corymbose  or  racemose — the  lower  or  outer  flowers 
generally  opening  first — and  the  flowers  are  usually 
borne  in  rather  dense  clusters.  The  dewberries  are 
also  distinguished  by  propagating  from  "tips,"  while 
the  blackberries  propagate  by  suckers. 

All  the  trailing  blackberries,  therefore,  are  specific- 
ally unlike  the  bush  blackberries.  They  are  all  dew- 
berries. Every  one  of  my  readers  who  has  tramped 
over  fields,  either  in  the  northern  or  the  southern 
states,  will  recall  the  sprawling,  thorny  plants,  with 
their  little  sour  fruits  and  their  red -brown  autumn 
foliage. 

Dewberries  seem  to  be  first  mentioned  as  a  culti- 
vated fruit  in  1863,  in  a  report  of  the  Fruit  Growers' 
Society  of  Western  New  York,  when  it  was  said  that 
Dr.  Miner,  of  Honeoye  Falls,  had  two  varieties  in  cul- 
tivation. These  varieties  were  not  named. 

The  first  variety  of  dewberry  to  come  promi- 
nently before  the  public  was  the  Lucretia  (Fig.  71). 
The  story  of  its  discovery  and  introduction  is  told 
me  by  B.  F.  Albaugh,  of  Covington,  Miami  county, 
Ohio,  who  introduced  it  to  the  trade.  A  young  man 
named  Williams  enlisted  in  the  civil  war  from  Miami 
county,  Ohio,  During  most  of  his  service  he  was 
stationed  in  West  Virginia,  part  of  the  time  near 


Fig.  71.    Lucretia  dewberry.    Half  size. 


THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

Beverly.  While  guarding 
private  property  there  he 
became  acquainted  with  the 
woman  who  afterwards  be- 
came his  wife.  He  settled 
on  her  plantation  after  the 
I  war,  and  upon  it  found  the 
dewberries  growing  wild. 
He  transplanted  some  to  his 
garden,  and  these  attracted 
the  attention  of  his  father, 
who  visited  him  in  1875. 
The  following  year  plants 
.were  sent  to  the  father  in 
Ohio,  and  they  were  distrib- 
uted among  a  few  friends. 
The  plants  were  carelessly 
dug,  however,  and  only  five 
of  the  genuine  variety  hap- 
pened to  be  in  the  lot,  and 
these,  along  with  many 
worthless  ones,  chanced  to 
fall  into  the  hands  of  Mr. 
Albaugh.  From  these  five 
plants  the  present  stock  has 
sprung.  When  the  variety 
was  offered  for  sale  Mr.  Al- 
baugh named  it  Lucretia, 
for  Mrs.  Lucretia  Garfield. 
Mr.  Albaugh  told  me  that 
the  five  original  plants  were 
vigorous  and  fruitful  in  1891. 
A  portion  of  one  of  the 

Fig.  72.    A  trellis  screen  of  Lucretia 
dewberry. 


LUCRETIA    AND    BARTEL  335 

original  plants — about  one -ninth  of  it — was  exhibited 
at  the  Association  of  American  Nurserymen  at  Wash- 
ington, in  June,  1886.  This  specimen  bore  978  ber- 
ries. E.  Y.  Teas,  now  of  Irvington,  Ind.,  appears  to 
have  been  the  first  to  figure  the  Lucretia  and  to 
offer  plants  for  sale. 

The  Lucretia,  like  all  dewberries,  has  made  its 
way  into  popular  favor  slowly.  People  have  not  yet 
learned  how  to  grow  these  fruits  easily  and  success- 
fully. Many  persons  laboriously  tie  them  up  on  wire 
screens  (Fig.  72)  or  trellises,  but  the  best  results — 
considering  the  outlay — are  obtained  when  the  canes 
are  tied  to  stakes.  In  this  fashion,  they  are  man- 
aged more  easily  than  blackberries,  and  the  earliness 
of  the  fruit — ripening  a  week  or  two  in  advance  of 
the  blackberries — makes  the  plant  a  useful  one  to  the 
enterprising  grower  of  small  fruits. 

Another  prominent  dewberry  is  the  Bartel;  and 
it  enjoys  the  distinction  of  being  the  first  dewberry, 
as  far  as  I  know,  to  receive  a  name.  It  was  brought 
to  notice  some  time  early  in  the  seventies  by  Dr. 
Bartel  of  Huey,  Clinton  county,  southern  Illinois. 
The  story  goes  that  the  plants  appeared  in  an  old 
corn-field  upon  his  farm,  and  some  of  the  berries 
were  so  large  that  he  conceived  the  idea  of  selling 
plants.  He  procured  a  lithograph  of  the  berries, — 
which  did  ample  justice  to  the  fruit, —  described  the 
methods  of  growing  them,  and  for  a  time  disposed  of 
considerable  stock.  The  introducer  was  an  old  man  at 
this  time,  and  was  one  of  those  clever  and  picturesque 
individuals  who  often  lend  an  interest  to  a  neighbor- 
hood. The  first  printed  record  of  this  berry  appeared 
in  December,  1875,  in  Purdy's  "Fruit  Recorder" 


336         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

(p.  182).  This  is  a  communication  from  "T.  C. 
Bartles,  of  Clinton  county,  Illinois,"  and  is  headed 
"Bar-ties'  Mammoth  Dewberry."  The  description  of 
the  berry  runs  as  follows  :  "  This  is  a  very  fine  berry, 
ripening  from  the  last  of  June  until  the  middle  of 
August.  The  fruit  is  very  large,  rich  and  juicy, 
slightly  acid,  but  not  so  sour  as  the  blackberry. 
When  ripe  it  is  black,  and  is  sufficiently  solid  to 
bear  shipment  with  safety.  I  have  had  berries  over 
two  inches  in  length  and  one  inch  in  diameter.  They 
are  a  perpetual  bearer  from  the  time  they  begin  to 
ripen  (in  ordinary  seasons)  until  the  last  of  August- 
having  blossoms  on  the  same  vine  simultaneously 
with  the  ripe  fruit.  They  are  very  prolific,  yielding 
in  a  fair  season  from  sixty  to  eighty  bushels  to  an 
acre.  They  do  not  blossom  until  late  in  the  spring — 
later  than  the  strawberry — the  fruit  maturing  in 
from  four  to  six  weeks  after  blossoming — hence  they 
are  seldom  if  ever  injured  by  late  frosts  in  the 
spring.  They  are  very  hardy — having  succeeded  as 
far  north  as  Wisconsin  and  the  northern  part  of 
Iowa."  An  account  of  methods  of  cultivation  is  then 
given.  "I  shipped  some  of  my  dewberries  to  New 
York  city  from  this  place,  for  which  I  received  six- 
teen dollars  per  bushel.  I  also  shipped  to  Rockford, 
111.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  and  to  Independence,  Iowa,  for 
which  I  received  twelve  dollars  and  eighty  cents  per 
bushel;  while  the  highest  price  paid  for  strawberries 
did  not  exceed,  on  an  average,  six  dollars  and  forty 
cents  per  bushel.  I  consider  the  dewberry  the  most 
profitable  fruit  raised."  Mr.  Purdy  gave  roots  of 
this  dewberry  as  a  premium  to  his  paper  at  this 
time,  and  among  those  who  obtained  it  were  I.  N. 


THE     BARTEL     DEWBERRY  337 

Stone,  of  Fort  Atkinson,  Wis.,  and  Hon.  B.  F. 
Adams,  of  Madison,  Wis.,  the  only  persons,  probably, 
as  Mr.  Stone  writes  me,  "who  had  sufficient  confi- 
dence in  it  to  give  it  a  fair  trial."  Mr.  Stone  has 
made  a  marked  success  of  its  culture,  and  all  the 
plants  set  in  recent  years  appear  to  have  come  directly 
or  indirectly  from  him. 

The  first  good  account  of  the  Bartel  was  published 
in  "Garden  and  Forest,"  in  1891,  by  Professor  Goff. 
"In  the  summer  of  1889,"  Professor  Goff  writes, 
"I  saw  a  small  plantation  of  Bartel  on  the  grounds  of 
Mr.  H.  C.  Adams,  of  Madison,  Wis.,  that  at  once 
established  my  faith  in  the  possibilities  of  this  fruit 
[dewberry] .  I  was  informed  that  the  most  productive 
season  had  passed  at  the  time  of  my  visit,  and  that 
the  berries  which  I  saw  were  inferior  in  size  to  those 
gathered  a  few  days  earlier.  But  at  this  time  the 
vines  were  fairly  well  loaded  with  fruit  of  larger  size 
and  more  attractive  appearance  than  the  finest  black- 
berries, and,  to  my  taste,  altogether  superior  in  quality. 
There  is  a  juicy,  melting  quality  in  the  dewberry  that 
is  scarcely  equaled  by  any  other  fruit  of  my  acquaint- 
ance. The  fact  that  the  dewberry  is  prostrate  in  its 
habit  of  growth  is  a  decided  objection  to  it  in  climates 
where  winter  protection  is  unnecessary.  But  in  regions 
of  severe  winters,  the  ease  with  which  the  plants  may 
be  covered  is  a  partial  recompense  for  this  fault.  It 
is  said  that  a  plantation  once  started  is  eradicated 
from  the  soil  with  considerable  difficulty,  which,  if 
true,  is  an  additional  objection  to  the  plant  in  culti- 
vation. I  consider  Bartel  dewberry  worthy  of  trial  by 
all  who  are  interested  in  testing  new  fruits.  Mr. 
Adams,  who  is  an  extensive  grower  of  blackberries, 
V 


338         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FKU1TS 

has  found  this  variety  more  profitable  as  a  market 
fruit  than  any  blackberries  he  has  grown."  The 
Bartel  dewberry  is  not  generally  known,  even  now ; 
but  a  few  persons  grow  it  with  much  satisfaction. 

All  this  history  of  the  Bartel  dewberry  is  simple 
enough,  as  one  reads  it,  but  some  weeks  of  labor  were 
consumed  in  discovering  the  facts.  This  is  but  another 
illustration  of  the  fact  that  few  useful  records  are 
made  of  plant  variation  and  of  horticultural  history. 
Even  the  proper  spelling  of  the  name  was  not  known 
until  this  history  was  recorded  in  the  Cornell  Bulletin, 
seven  years  ago.  It  was  variously  written  Bartle, 
Bartles',  Bartell  and  Bartells',  but  I  have  the  evidence 
of  a  neighbor  of  the  introducer,  who  is  now  dead, 
that  he  spelled  his  name  Bartel. 

The  reader  may  be  interested  to  know  how  this 
history  was  obtained.  In  the  first  place,  it  may  be 
said  that  there  was  no  record  of  the  origin  of  the 
variety  to  be  found  in  the  many  books  or  journals 
to  which  the  writer  had  access.  He  then  wrote  to 
Mr.  Adams  and  Mr.  Stone,  whose  success  with  this 
dewberry  has  been  mentioned,  asking  where  they 
obtained  the  variety.  One  of  them  replied  that  he 
obtained  it  years  before  as  a  premium  to  Purdy's 
"Small -Fruit  Recorder,"  a  periodical  which  had  dis- 
continued publication.  The  writer  had  no  file  of  this 
journal ;  but  the  editor  is  living,  and  he  therefore 
wrote  him  for  information.  The  editor  replied  that 
the  correspondent  was  evidently  mistaken,  that  he 
had  not  offered  the  berry  as  a  premium,  to  the 
best  of  his  memory,  and  that  he  knew  nothing  of  it. 
Yet  the  correspondent  was  positive  in  reasserting 
his  statements,  and,  thinking  that  the  lapse  of  time 


A    DEVIOUS    HISTORY  339 

might  have  dimmed  the  editor's  memory,  I  set  about 
to  procure  a  file  of  the  eighteen  volumes  of  the 
journal.  The  set  was  found  and  purchased.  One  of 
the  volumes  contained  an  account  of  the  dewberry, 
written  by  "T.  C.  Bartles,  of  Clinton  county,  Illinois," 
as  already  quoted,  but  the  narrative  gave  no  infor- 
mation as  to  the  origin  of  the  berry.  It  was  neces- 
sary, therefore,  to  discover  the  address  of  Mr.  Bartles 
and  to  correspond  with  him,  but  I  could  not  secure 
his  address.  The  editor  did  not  remember  it.  In 
vain  every  horticultural  and  agricultural  report  of 
Illinois  was  scanned.  Files  of  periodicals  were 
searched.  When  every  resource  seemed  to  have 
been  exhausted,  a  catalogue  of  a  western  spray- 
pump  manufacturer  fell  into  my  hands,  in  which  was 
a  testimonial  of  the  pumps  signed  by  T.  C.  Bartles, 
Clinton  county,  Illinois !  The  catalogue  maker  sup- 
plied the  post  office  address.  But  it  turned  out  that 
this  T.  C.  Bartles,  of  Huey,  Clinton  county,  111., 
was  a  townsman  but  not  kinsman  of  Dr.  Bartel,  the 
man  who  introduced  the  berry!  Dr.  Bartel  had  died 
some  years  before,  but  Mr.  Bartles  was  able  to  supply 
the  history. 

It  is  only  within  the  last  ten  years  that  the  dew- 
berries have  attracted  much  attention  from  horticul- 
turists. The  varieties  have  now  increased  to  twenty  or 
more,  every  one  of  which  seems  to  have  been  picked 
up  in  the  wild.  If  we  would  understand  these  varie- 
ties, we  must  look  more  closely  into  the  botanical  fea- 
tures of  the  dewberries.  The  three  commonest  species 
of  dewberries  are  Rubus  villosus  (Rubus  Canadensis 
of  all  writers),  R.  hispidus,  and  R.  trivialis.  The 
first  two  are  northern  species  and  the  last  southern. 


340        THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

Rubus  hispidus  (Fig.  73)  is  a  very  slender  plant, 
rarely  rising  at  all  above  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
and  growing  both  in  swamps  and  upon  barren  sand. 
The  leaflets  are  obovate,  stiff,  and  shining  above.  The 
flowers  are  few  and  very  small,  and  the  fruit  is  small 
and  usually  red.  The  species  appears  to  possess  no 
value  as  a  fruit,  and  yet  it  is  often  confounded  with 
Rubus  villosus  (R.  Canadensls  of  the  books),  which  is 
the  parent  of  some  of  our  cultivated  varieties. 

The  Rubus  villosus,  to  which  the  term  dewberry  is 
usually  restricted  in  the  North,  is  much  like  the  south- 
ern dewberry,  Rubus  trivialis,  in  appearance.  The 
chief  distinguishing  points  are  these  : 

Rubus  villosus,  or  northern  dewberry  (Fig.  74). 
Main  stems  or  canes  rather  sparsely  and  slightly 
prickly ;  leaves  thin  and  deciduous,  either  destitute  of 
prickles  or  bearing  only  weak  ones,  and  more  or  less 
hairy ;  leaflets  ovate  ;  sepals  often  prolonged  and  leaf- 
like,  and  sometimes  lobed.  (See,  also,  pp.  371-374.) 

Rubus  trivialis,  or  southern  dewberry.  Main  canes 
mostly  thickly  beset  with  stout  prickles ;  leaves  firm 
and  nearly  or  quite  evergreen,  smooth  or  very  nearly 
so,  the  petioles  or  midribs  usually  bearing  stout 
prickles ;  leaflets  oval -oblong  or  almost  lanceolate  and 
small  ;  sepals  not  prolonged  nor  cut.  This  species  is 
common  from  Delaware  to  Florida  and  Texas,  on  the 
sandy  lands.  The  canes  often  grow  ten  or  fifteen  feet 
in  length.  It  is  variable,  and  attractive  varieties  are 
often  found.  Some  forms  have  even  been  mentioned 
as  possessing  value  as  ornamental  plants.  (See  p.  376.) 
The  northern  dewberry  is  a  very  variable  species. 
In  any  locality  where  it  grows  in  abundance  a  number 
of  unlike  forms  may  usually  be  found.  Some 'of  the 


SORTS    OF     DEWBERRIES 

forms  are  probably  worthy  of  botan- 
ical names.  To  this  species  or  its 
botanical  varieties  most  of  the  culti- 
vated dewberries  belong.  It  is  read- 
ily divided  into  two  sections  or  sub- 
types : 

1.  The  common  dew- 
berries, Rubus  villosus  (or 
R.  Canadensis)  proper.  The 
leaves  vary  greatly  in  size 
and  shape,  those  upon  the 
bearing  canes  being  small, 
while  those  upon  growing 
canes  may  be  nearly  as 
large  as  the  leaves  of 
blackberries. 

Four  varieties  of  this 
type  of  Riibus  villosus  are 
in  cultivation: 

WINDOM,  first  brought 
into  prominent  notice  in 
1887  by  the  Seedling  Com- 
mission of  the  Minnesota 
State  Horticultural  Society. 
The  report  of  J.  S.  Harris, 
one  of  the  Commission,  is 
as  follows  :  "At  Windom 
[Cottonwood  county]  we 
met  Dewain  Cook,  of  Dale 
township,  a  wide-awake 
man,  who  is  pursuing  fruit 
culture  under  many  dis- 
advantages. He  has  dis- 


THE    WINDOM     DEWBERRY  343 

covered  and  is  cultivating  a  hardy  dewberry,  which,  if 
it  comes  near  up  to  what  he  claims  for  it,  will  prove  of 
great  value  to  our  lists  of  hardy  fruits.  It  has  been 
cultivated  here  thirteen  years.  We  have  many  testi- 
monials showing  its  hardiness,  productiveness,  fair  size, 
and  good  quality  of  fruit,  etc.,  and  have  secured  plants 
and  had  them  sent  to  several  of  our  experiment  stations 
to  be  tested  and  reported  upon."  A.  W.  Sias,  one  of 
the  Commission,  writes  me  as  follows:  "In  the  fall  of 
1887,  J.  S.  Harris,  Rev.  G.  W.  Fuller  and  myself  were 
on  the  Seedling  Commission  of  the  Minnesota  State  Hor- 
ticultural Society,  and  while  acting  in  this  capacity  Mr. 
Harris  and  myself  visited  Dewain  Cook,  at  Windom,  and 
were  greatly  pleased  with  the  dewberry.  His  plants  were 
very  heavily  loaded  with  good  fruit.  The  fruit  is  small 
— perhaps  not  more  than  half  the  size  of  Lucretia — but 
what  it  lacks  in  size  it  more  than  makes  up  in  quality. 
I  purchased  1,000  plants  of  Mr.  Cook  while  at  his  place, 
and  set  them  on  a  very  heavy  clay.  While  they  suc- 
ceeded much  better  than  the  Mammoth  and  Lucretia 
near  by,  they  did  not  equal  Mr.  Cook's  plants,  which 
were  on  soil  containing  some  sand."  The  variety 
appears  to  have  been  sent  out  as  early  as  1886,  at  least 
to  experiment  stations.  It  was  first  known  as  Cook's 
Hardy.  The  exact  origin  of  this  dewberry  is  not  known. 
Mr.  Cook  informs  me  that  he  obtained  his  plants  from 
a  neighbor,  J.  Q.  Pickett,  who  had  been  growing  them 
for  seventeen  or  eighteen  years,  but  who  refuses  to  dis- 
close the  origin  of  the  variety.  Mr.  Pickett  came  from 
Iowa,  and  it  is  commonly  thought  that  he  brought  the 
dewberry  with  him  and  that  it  grew  wild  in  that  state. 
Mr.  Cook  resides  near  the  Mennonites,  and  some  have 
supposed  that  the  variety  was  originally  introduced  by 


344         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

them  from  Russia,  but  I  fail  to  find  anything  in  the 
botanical  features  of  the  plant  which  leads  me  to  sus- 
pect any  other  than  an  American  origin. 

LUCRETIA'S  SISTER,  discovered,  or  at  least  intro- 
duced, by  J.  B.  Treedway,  of  Brandt,  Miami  county, 
Ohio,  about  1886.  I  grew  it  in  1887,  and  a  sprig  of 
the  plant  is  illustrated  in  the  "American  Garden"  for 
February,  1890.  It  appeared  to  possess  no  value  with 
me,  and  I  have  not  grown  it  since.  It  appears  never 
to  have  attained  to  any  reputation. 

GEER,  discovered  in  a  wood -lot  upon  the  property 
of  a  Mrs.  Geer,  of  Plainfield,  Livingston  county,  Mich., 
by  F.  L.  Wright,  a  horticulturist  of  that  place.  Plants 
were  transferred  to  the  garden  in  1887,  but  it  is  not 
generally  introduced.  It  is  a  small  berry,  but  a  fair 
cropper. 

MA  YES,  or  AUSTIN.  This  berry,  with  which  I  have 
small  acquaintance,  seems  to  be  a  large  and  strong  form 
of  Bttbus  vittosus  (common  dewberry) .  It  is  a  Texan 
variety,  and  was  first  described  in  the  "Horticulturist," 
Pilot  Point,  Texas,  for  December,  1889.  It  is  said  to 
be  "a  supposed  cross  between  the  common  dewberry 
and  the  native  Texas  blackberry."  The  history  of  this 
berry  is  given  me  as  follows  by  Dr.  A.  M.  Ragland: 

"About  the  year  1879  I  purchased  a  hundred  acre 
tract  of  land  three  miles  east  of  Pilot  Point,  on  Pecan 
creek.  South  of  this  and  joining  it  was  a  tract  which 
was  purchased  about  two  years  later  by  John  Mayes. 
There  was  only  a  wire  cross  fence  between  the  farms. 
On  both  of  these  tracts  of  land,  east  of  Pecan  creek, 
there  were  twenty -five  or  thirty  acres  covered  with 
dewberry  and  the  wild  Texas  or  Dallas  blackberry. 
These  dewberries  were  the  common  dewberry  found 


THE    MAYES    DEWBERRY  345 

growing  in  many  places  in  Texas  and  Louisiana. 
People  from  our  town  were  in  the  habit  of  visiting 
this  dewberry  and  blackberry  field  every  spring,  to 
gather  first  the  dewberries,  and  later  the  blackberries. 
After  Mr.  Mayes  came  into  possession  of  the  farm,  he 
began  to  cultivate  the  land  where  these  berries  grew, 
and  discovered  this  berry  occupying  a  small  area  of 
not  more  than  half  an  acre,  or  an  acre  at  most.  The 
berries  were  so  much  finer  than  the  other  dewberries 
growing  all  around  it,  that  he  decided  to  save  them. 
He  plowed  them,  and  found  they  grew  firm,  and  so  he 
began  bringing  his  surplus  above  home  consumption 
to  town  to  sell.  Their  large  size  and  earliness  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  our  Pilot  Point  Horticultural 
Society,  so  that  a  member  asked  Mr.  Mayes  to  bring 
them  plants — one  or  two  hundred  each.  Among 
those  purchasing  them  at  this  time  were  Mr.  J.  W. 
Austin,  Mr.  Sam  Gaines  and  myself.  That  was  about 
1888  or  1889.  Since  then  these  berries  have  con- 
tinued to  grow  in  popular  favor.  The  name,  Mayes 
Hybrid,  was  suggested  by  myself,  because  the  plants 
were  found  growing  where  both  the  common  dewberry 
(Rubus  trivialifi)  and  common  Texas  blackberry,  now 
known  as  the  Dallas  berry,  were  both  occupying  the 
locality  indiscriminately.  Col.  W.  W.  Ross,  who  then 
lived  here,  and  myself  proposed  to  Mr.  Mayes  to 
call  it  the  Mayes  Hybrid  and  form  a  company,  known 
as  the  Mayes  Berry  Company,  to  propagate  and  sell  the 
plants.  I  first  advertised  them  in  'The  Horticulturist' 
as  the  Mayes  Hybrid  Blackberry." 

J.  W.  Austin,'  of  Pilot  Point,  Texas,  also  propa- 
gated the  plant,  and  introduced  it  as  Austin's  Im- 
proved Dewberry. 


346  THE    EVOLUTION    OP     OUR    NATIVE     FRUITS 

The  MAYNARD,  a  Kansas  variety,  is  one  of  the  nov- 
elties. It  has  a  peculiar  habit,  intermediate  between 
Rubus  villosus  and  the  blackberry,  but  it  seems  to  be 
nearer  the  former.  Card  considers  it  a  hybrid. 

2.  The  Lucretia  sub -type,  variety  roribaccus 
(Fig.  71).  As  compared  with  Rubus  villosus  proper, 
this  variety  is  a  much  larger  and  stronger  grower; 
leaves  large  and  the  margins  doubly  serrate  with  small 
teeth,  and  more  or  less  notched  or  jagged :  leaflets 
broad  at  or  below  the  middle,  sometimes  triangu- 
lar-ovate ;  peduncles  or  flower  stems  much  longer, 
straighter  and  stouter,  more  erect,  habitually  more 
numerous  and  more  conspicuously  overtopping  the 
leaves ;  flowers  very  large  and  showy  (often  two 
inches  across) ;  sepals  uniformly  larger,  some  of  them 
much  prolonged  and  leaf -like  and  conspicuously  lobed 
(sometimes  becoming  an  inch  long  and  wide) ;  fruit 
much  longer  and  larger  as  a  rule,  and  more  or  less 
thimble -shaped.  Strong  forms  of  Rubtis  villosus 
itself  often  look  much  like  this  in  •foliage,  but  I 
have  never  seen  any  in  which  there  was  such  a  de- 
velopment of  long  flower  stems,  large  flowers  and 
fruits,  and  large  sepals.  The  Lucretia  appears  to 
be  the  only  variety  of  this  sub -type  in  cultivation. 

The  Bartel  type,  or  Rubus  invisus,  is  particularly 
distinguished  by  the  large  and  nearly  simple  teeth  of 
the  leaves  and  the  very  long  and  ascending  flower 
stems.  Canes  stout  and  stiff,  often  partially  ascending; 
leaflets  larger  than  in  R.  villosus,  broad  and  thin, 
smooth  or  very  nearly  so,  the  teeth  usually  very  large, 
simple  and  often  rounded  and  terminating  in  a  minute 
point ;  peduncles  or  flower  stems  long  and  straight ; 
young  flower  buds  commonly  bearing  a  prominent  tip 


THE    WILD    RUBUS    INVISUS 


347 


formed   by  the  connivent  ends   of   the  sepals ;   flowers 
commonly    larger   than    in    R.    villosus.     As   the   wild 


Fig.  7.").    Kulnu  ineintut,  the  Bartel  type. 

plant  grows  in  New  York,  and  as  it  is  seen  in  the 
cultivated  varieties,  it  appears  to  be  very  distinct  from 
Rub  UK  rilloKus.  But  there  may  be  intermediate 


348          THE    EVOLUTION     OP    OUR    NATIVE     FRUITS 

forms,  and  the  botanical  rank  of  the  species  cannot  be 
fully  determined  until  our  rubuses  have  received  further 
study.  The  cut  (Fig.  75)  shows  a  flowering  stem  of 
the  wild  plant  which  grows  at  Ithaca,  New  York.  It 
grows  here  upon  a  rocky  hillside,  completely  covering 
the  ground  with  a  tangled  mat  a  foot  or  a  foot  and  a 
half  thick.  The  first  ripe  fruits  on  this  wild  patch 
appear  late  in  July.  The  fruits  are  small,  containing 
from  six  to  eighteen  drupelets,  and  are  of  no  value. 
In  cultivation,  this  type  has  given  us  the  Bartel, 
already  mentioned,  and  the  three  following  : 

GENERAL  GRANT,  introduced  by  Charles  A.  Green, 
of  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  in  1885  or  1886,  as  a  premium  to 
his  "Fruit  Grower."  It  came  from  M.  W.  Broyles, 
somewhere  in  Tennessee.  Mr.  Green  informs  me  that 
the  variety  did  not  prove  to  be  as  valuable  as  repre- 
sented to  him,  and  he  therefore  dropped  it.  I  first  grew 
the  variety  in  1886,  and  it  seems  to  possess  little  value. 
The  variety  has  never  become  prominent. 

NEVER  FAIL.  I  know  this  only  from  a  specimen  and 
notes  sent  me  by  F.  L.  Wright,  Plainfield,  Mich.,  who 
obtained  it  from  some  person  in  central  Indiana.  He 
says  :  "It  never  fails  to  produce  an  abundance  of  wood, 
but  always  fails  to  produce  fruit.  I  never  had  a  perfect 
berry."  It  is  said  to  have  originated  in  central  Ohio. 

MAMMOTH.  There  are  certainty  two  plants  sold 
under  this  name,  one  being  Rubus  invisus  and  the  other 
apparently  true  Rubus  villosus.  The  former  is,  I  think, 
the  same  as  Bartel,  but  the  history  and  characteristics 
of  the  latter  I  have  been  unable  to  trace. 

So  far  as  I  can  learn,  the  commoner  Mammoth  dew- 
berry offered  by  nurserymen  is  only  the  Bartel,  and 
the  plants  which  I  have  grown  and  seen  of  it  appear  to 


THE    VARIETY    CALLED     MAMMOTH  349 

be  the  same.  The  original  name  of  the  Bartel  was 
BartePs  Mammoth,  and  it  is  now  often  sold  under  this 
name,  and  sometimes  Bartel  is  omitted.  I  have  written 
to  nurserymen  who  advertise  the  Mammoth,  and  all  the 
replies  which  I  have  received  state  that  Bartel,  Bartel's 
Mammoth  and  Mammoth  are  the  same.  It  is  a  common 
impression  among  growers  and  experimenters,  however, 
that  the  two  are  distinct,  perhaps  because  they  were 
received  under  different  names.  Mr.  Lyon,  in  the 
Michigan  report  of  new  fruits,  published  in  1883, 
says  that  the  "Mammoth  is  another  variety  of  similar 
character  [to  Bartel]  scarcely  more  productive.  Eipe 
August  1."  Separate  reports  of  Bartel  and  Mammoth 
are  given  by  the  New  York  State  Experiment  Station, 
and  Professor  Goff  speaks  of  them  as  different  in  his 
articles  already  quoted  in  "Garden  and  Forest,"  1891. 
But  no  one,  so  far  as  I  can  learn,  has  pointed  out  any 
differences  between  the  two. 

One  of  the  replies  to  my  inquiries  of  nurserymen, 
from  a  very  prominent  western  firm,  is  as  follows:  :'As 
to  Mammoth,  we  verily  believe  there  is  in  reality  no 
specific  variety  generally  distributed  and  known  under 
this  name.  Twenty  years  ago  Dewey,  the  plate  maker, 
had  a  plate  called  'Mammoth  Prolific  Dewberry,'  and  so 
long  ago  as  1873  we  scoured  the  country  over  trying  to 
find  a  few  hundred  of  something  by  this  name  for  a 
customer  who  had  sold  them  from  the  aforesaid  plate, 
but  could  not  learn  of  anything  of  the  kind  then  in 
existence.  Since  the  introduction  of  Lucretia,  a  firm 
in  Jackson  county,  111.,  brought  out  a  variety  they 
called  Mammoth,  and  while  we  are  not  absolutely  sure, 
we  think  it  was  merely  a  wild  variety  which  they  took 
up,  propagated,  and  gave  this  name.  We  obtained 


350         THE     EVOLUTION     OP     OUR    NATIVE     FRUITS 

plants  and  have  had  them  in  cultivation  for  a  number  of 
years.  We  do  not  know  but  that  they  have  done  about 
as  well  as  Lucretia,  though  we  must  say  that  none  of  the 
dewberries  have  been  particularly  satisfactory  with  us." 

I  mistrust  that  the  plate  referred  to  is  the  one  which 
Dr.  Bartel  had  made  for  his  variety.  I  have  been 
unable  to  learn  the  history  of  the  plate.  It  seems  to 
have  made  no  impression  upon  the  nurserymen  of 
western  New  York,  where  Dewey,  the  plate  maker, 
lived,  and  I  have  not  been  able  to  find  a  copy  of  it.  I 
feel  sure  that  the  common  Mammoth  is  the  Bartel. 

The  other  Mammoth  is  the  one  referred  to  in  the 
letter  above  quoted  as  coming  from  a  firm  in  Jackson 
county,  111.  I  understand  this  firm  to  be  Bailey 
&  Hanford,  which  is  now  dissolved.  I  have  been 
unable  to  get  any  direct  statement  of  the  variety^  I 
have  received  the  plant  from  a  party  who  obtained  it 
indirectly  from  Bailey  &  Hanford,  and  it  is  distinct 
from  Bartel,  for  it  belongs,  apparently,  to  the  type  form 
of  Eubus  mllosus.  I  know  nothing  yet  of  the  value  of 
this  Mammoth,  but  it  is  certain  that  it  has  not  become 
generally  known. 

In  regard  to  this  confusion,  Mr.  Stone  writes  me  as 
follows:  "The  Bartel  was  introduced  as  Bartel  Mam- 
moth, and  is  generally  known  by  this  name  now,  but 
the  word  Mammoth  has  been  dropped  by  some  on  ac- 
count of  there  having  been  an  entirely  worthless  variety 
called  Mammoth  sent  out  quite  extensively.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  I  have  dropped  Mammoth.  The  variety 
sent  out  under  the  name  had  a  much  larger  cane  and 
blossomed  freely,  but  never  set  any  fruit;  at  least  this 
was  the  case  with  the  stock  I  had." 

There    are    many   other    interesting    forms    of    the 


A    MICHIGAN    TYPE 


351 


common  dewberry  which  will  no  doubt  be  introduced 
into  cultivation  in  the  course  of  time.  The  features 
of  the  species  have  not  been  closely  studied  by  bot- 
anists. I  cannot  forbear,  in  passing,  to  speak  of  one 
very  promising  form  which  I  have  collected  in  the 
drifting  sand  upon  the  banks  of  Lake  Michigan,  in 


\ 


Fig.  76.    Rubus  villosus  var.  Michiganensit. 

southwestern  Michigan.  This  is  a  very  leafy  and 
vigorous,  long-running  plant,  which  produces  large 
globular -oblong  fruits  of  excellent  quality,  and  which 
seems  to  be  distinguished  from  all  other  dewberries  in 
the  very  deep  and  sharp,  irregular  teeth  of  the  leaves. 
(Fig.  76.)  In  my  herbarium,  Professor  Card  has  named 
this  plant  Rubus  villosus  var.  Michiganensis  (seep.  374). 


352        THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

A  plant  which  has  long  been  confounded  with 
Rubus  villosus  is  the  Rubus  Enslenii,  or  Rubus  Bailey  - 
anus  of  Britton  ("List  of  Pteridophyta  and  Sperma- 
tophyta,"  185,  1894).  This  is  a  slender  plant,  with 
weak  spines  or  none,  and  almost  herbaceous  shoots, 
small  flowers  mostly  in  1-  or  2-flowered  clusters,  and 
very  broad  and  thin,  doubly  toothed  leaves  (Fig.  87). 
It  seems  to  be  a  good  species.  It  occurs  freely  in 
eastern  New  York  and  in  Pennsylvania,  and  I  have 
collected  it  in  southwestern  Michigan.  It  is  probably 
generally  distributed  in  the  northwestern  states.  This 
is  the  plant  which  Torrey  had  in  mind  when  he 
founded  Rubus  villosus  var.  humifusus  (Fig.  77), 
which  has  ejected  so  much  unnecessary  confusion 
into  the  knowledge  of  the  high -bush  blackberry,  for 
this  blackberry  has  no  trailing  forms  (page  331).  The 
picture  (page  353)  is  a  photograph  of  Torrey 's  origi- 
nal specimens,  collected  at  West  Point. 

The  southern  dewberry,  Rubus  trivialis,  is  repre- 
sented in  cultivation  by  the  Manatee,  introduced  in 
1889  by  Reasoner  Brothers,  Manatee,  Fla. ;  Bauer, 
sent  out  in  1890  by  Bauer's  Nursery,  Judsonia, 
Ark.;  Wilson's  White,  introduced  in  1890  by  Samuel 
Wilson,  Mechanicsville,  Penna.  (native  of  Texas) ; 
probably  the  Fairfax,  sent  out  about  1884,  by  C.  A. 
Uber,  Fairfax  county,  Va. 

The  Pacific  coast  also  has  a  native  dewberry,  and, 
like  most  rubuses,  its  nomenclature  is  confused.  The 
species  is  not  only  perplexingly  variable,  but  some 
plants  produce  only  pistillate  flowers,  others  only  stami- 
nate,  whereas  others  bear  perfect  flowers.  It  appears  to 
have  been  first  described  by  Chamisso  &  Schlechtendal 
in  "LinnaBa,"  in  1827,  as  Riibus  mtifolius,  or  vine- 


OTHER    TYPES    OF    DEWBERRIES 


353 


^PNF 


Fig.  77.     ItiiiniK  Enslenii. 

These  specimens  (about  half  size)  are  the  types  of  Torrey's 
Rubus  villosus  var.  humifuaut.—From  Torrey  herbarium,  Co- 
lumbia College. 

leaved  bramble.  On  the  following  page,  in  the  same 
volume,  the  same  authors  described  another  form  of  the 
species  as  Rubus  ursinus,  and  this  is  the  name  by  which, 

w 


354          THE     EVOLUTION     OF     OUR    NATIVE     FRUITS 

though  improperly,  the  plant  is  usually  known.  In 
1833,  Douglas  described  it  as  Rubus  macropetalus . 
Four  named  varieties  of  Rubus  vitifolius  are  in  cultiva- 
tion, the  Skagit  Chief,  Washington  Climbing  blackberry, 
Belle  of  Washington,  and  Aughinbaugh.  The  first,  as 
I  have  grown  it,  is  pistillate,  and  therefore  incapable  of 
setting  fruit;  and  it  blooms  too  early  to  be  pollinated 
by  our  eastern  dewberries,  even  if  the  species  were  to 
admit  of  such  cross -pollination.  The  Skagit  Chief 
(Fig.  78)  and  Belle  of  Washington  are  chance  varieties 
from  the  wild,  and  they  were  distributed  sparingly  to 
experimenters  late  in  1891.  The  Washington  Climbing 
was  introduced  in  1892  by  Samuel  Wilson,  Mechanics- 
ville,  Penna. 

The  Aughinbaugh  variety  is  described  in  "Garden 
and  Forest"  for  1894,  as  follows,  by  Charles  Howard 
Shinn  : 

"In  blackberries,  the  Pacific  coast  has  one  very 
variable  but  important  species,  Rubus  ursinus  [R. 
vitifolius],  bearing  an  oblong,  sweet,  highly  flavored 
fruit.  This  berry  still  grows  in  immense  patches  along 
the  river  bottoms,  fills  the  ravines,  and  even  extends 
far  up  among  the  oaks  and  manzanitas  on  dry  hill- 
sides. If  it  fruited  abundantly  it  might  long  ago 
have  become  the  parent  of  many  valuable  varieties, 
as  has  been  the  case  with  the  blackberry.  Occasion- 
ally, in  rich,  sheltered  places  it  bears  so  heavily  that 
people  come  for  miles  to  camp  in  the  berry-fields  and 
gather  the  delicious  fruit.  Variable  in  growth,  in 
leaves,  and  in  many  other  particulars,  it  seems  to  vary 
most  in  fruitage,  and  offers  peculiar  advantages  to  the 
skilled  hybridizer.  As  with  other  members  of  the 
family,  carefully  selected  plants  from  the  woods  and 


THE    PACIFIC    COAST    DEWBERRY  355 

hills,  transplanted  to  the  garden,  amply  repay  attention. 
A  white  variety,  found  in  Del  Norte  county,  has  been 
somewhat  disseminated  in  California,  and  several  other 
varieties  have  gained  some  local  reputation.  *  *  * 


Fig.  78.    Skagit  Chief,  a  form  of  Rubus  vitifolius. 

"The  most  remarkable  sport  of  the  native  black- 
berry is  the  Aughinbaugh.  The  Aughinbaugh  was 
found  growing  wild  on  the  sandy  Eucinal,  or  peninsula 


356         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

of  Alameda,  a  good  many  years  ago,  by  a  pioneer  who 
once  owned  many  acres  there.  Aughinbaugh  removed 
it  to  his  garden,  cultivated  and  disseminated  it.  He 
lost  his  estate,  and  died  in  poverty;  a  city  is  built  over 
his  pasture  lands,  but  the  wild  berry  vine  he  trans- 
planted from  under  the  oak  forest  which  then  covered 
the  Almeda  shore  has  preserved  his  name  from  obliv- 
ion. The  Aughinbaugh  blackberry,  as  I  have  grown 
it  from  from  his  original  stock,  is  a  beautiful  vine  of 
trailing  habit,  like  a  dewberry,  but  with  much  larger, 
darker  leaves,  and  of  extremely  vigorous  growth. 
Being  pistillate,  it  does  not  bear  well  unless  planted 
with  other  varieties.  Properly  fertilized,  on  good  soil, 
and  well  trained  on  a  fence  or  trellis,  its  bearing 
powers  are  often  astonishing,  and  in  quality  it  is  very 
fine,  but  it  has  never  become  popular.  I  may  add  that 
for  some  reason  the  nurseries  did  not  take  it  up,  and 
one  only  finds  it  now  in  a  few  old  gardens.  Still  it 
ought  to  be  more  generally  distributed.  It  has  been 
crossed  with  CrandalPs  Early,  producing  a  promising 
line  of  seedlings." 

Wickson,  in  his  "California  Fruits,"  says  that  the 
Aughinbaugh— which  is  the  "  most  famous"  of  the  native 
blackberries  or  dewberries — was  "propagated  and  sold 
by  a  man  of  that  name  about  1875.  It  achieved  some 
popularity,  but,  being  a  pistillate  variety,  needed  asso- 
ciation with  other  berries  to  fertilize  it.  For  this  and 
other  reasons  it  became  unpopular,  and  has  been 
nearly  lost  sight  of." 

Wickson  also  mak'es  the  following  account  of  this 
Rubus  vitlfolius:  "The  most  delicious  wild  fruit  of 
California,  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  important 
commercially,  is  the  blackberry.  We  have  one  very 


VARIOUS    BRAMBLE    FRUITS  357 

variable  species,  bearing  au  oblong,  very  sweet  and 
desirable  fruit.  It  was  favorably  mentioned  by  early 
explorers,  was  highly  esteemed  by  the  Indians,  and  still 
plays  an  important  part  in  domestic  economy  from 
Ventura  county  northward  along  the  coast  range.  A 
variety  of  this  species  has  attained  some  fame  as  a 
'white  blackberry.'  It  is  said  that  about  1860,  parties 
gathering  blackberries  about  half  a  mile  from  Crescent 
City,  Del  Norte  county,  discovered  a  few  bushes  or 
vines  loaded  with  a  berry  exactly  in  shape  of  the  black- 
berry, but  of  a  white  or  cream  color.  The  whole  patch 
did  not  extend  beyond  a  space  of  a  dozen  feet  square, 
but  the  vines  were  luxuriant  and  bore  well.  It  was  a 
great  curiosity,  and  the  place  and  the  berry  were  much 
sought  for.  Since  that  time  the  vines  have  spread 
gradually  over  a  space  of  perhaps  half  an  acre  of 
ground.  Plants  have  been  taken  from  this  locality  to 
different  parts." 

Remaining  Types  of  Blackberry -like  Plants 

There  are  various  other  species  of  rubuses  which 
bear  edible  and  attractive  fruits,  but  which  have  not  yet 
become  prominent  in  cultivation,  or  are  known  only  in 
the  wild  state.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  remain- 
ing types  is  the  Logan-berry  (Fig.  79),  which  was  intro- 
duced to  the  public  in  1893  by  the  California  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station.  The  Pacific  coast  botanists 
and  horticulturists  seem  to  be  agreed  that  this  singular 
berry  is  a  hybrid  of  the  Aughinbaugh  dewberry  crossed 
by  the  Old  World  type  of  red  raspberry,  Rubus  Idceus. 
The  history  of  the  plant  is  given  by  Charles  Howard 
Shinn  in  "Garden  and  Forest"  for  November  21,  1894: 


358         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

"The  Logan -berry  originated  several  years  ago  in 
the  garden  of  Judge  J.  H.  Logan,  of  Santa  Cruz,  from 
self-sown  seeds  of  the  Aughinbaugh  springing  up  in 
the  moist,  warm  soil  of  that  sheltered  district.  The 
other  parent  is  supposed  to  be  a  raspberry  of  the  Red 
Antwerp  type.  Raspberries  of  several  sorts  grew 


Pig.  79.    Leaf  of  Logan-berry,  half  size.    From  Rural  New-Yorker. 

alongside,  and,  in  fact,  intermingled.  The  Logan- berry 
shows  so  clearly  the  mingling  of  both  types  that  no 
horticulturist  who  studies  the  fruit  has  doubted  that  it 
is  a  true  hybrid  of  Aughinbaugh  blackberry  with  some 
large  red  European  raspberry.  The  result  is  a  very 
sturdy  plant  of  rambling  or  trailing  growth,  needing 
support  to  be  at  its  best,  but  even  in  this  dry  climate  it 


LOGAN -BERRY  359 

is  a  vine  of  unusual  substance  and  healthfulness,  re- 
sembling the  Aughinbaugh  blackberry,  but  readily  dis- 
tinguished from  it  in  the  field.  The  berry  is  large  and 
solid,  resembling  the  Aughinbaugh  in  shape,  and  re- 
taining its  delicious  wild  flavor.  It  is  dark  red  to 
purple  when  fully  ripe,  and  shows  in  texture,  in  the 
easy  slipping  from  the  core,  and  partly  in  flavor,  the 
raspberry  parentage. 

"  Tests  made  in  different  soils  and  in  some  very  dry 
sit  nations  have  shown  so  far,  that  the  Logan  -  berry  will 
grow  and  bear  a  fair  amount  of  fruit  in  localities  where 
the  gooseberry,  currant,  high -bush  varieties  of  black- 
berries and  dewberries  have  entirely  failed.  As  I  have 
said,  plants  of  Riibus  ursinus  are  sometimes  found 
thriving  very  well  on  dry  hillsides  with  scrub  oaks  and 
chaparral,  but  seldom  bear  fruit  to  any  extent  in  such 
arid  places.  In  other  words,  some  individuals  of  this 
variable  species  of  rubus  grow  in  very  hot,  arid  and 
barren  places,  and  the  original  Aughinbaugh,  though 
found  on  a  sandy  peninsula  near  the  bay,  instead  of  on 
a  hillside,  seems  to  have  had  the  power  to  transmit  this 
resistant  quality,  together  with  an  increased  produc- 
tiveness. 

"The  Logan -berry  is  now  grown  for  market  near 
Santa  Cruz  and  Watson ville,  and  the  results  are  said  to 
be  gratifying,  both  in  regard  to  price  and  yield.  Like 
the  blackberry,  the  season  is  a  long  one,  but  I  have  no 
data  from  the  berry  gardens.  It  is  certain,  however, 
that  the  area  planted  is  being  extended  rapidly.  The 
Logan -berry  is  hardy  wherever  tested  in  California,  but 
this  proves  nothing  in  respect  to  its  value  in  colder 
climates,  though  its  wild  blackberry  blood  must  be  an 
advantage,  possibly  sufficient  to  counteract  the  weaker 


360         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

Red  Antwerp  cross.  The  fact  that  hardly  a  trace  of  the 
raspberry  remains  in  vine,  leaf,  or  general  appearance 
supports  this  view." 

At  this  writing,  the  Logan -berry  has  not  been  suf- 
ficiently tested  in  the  east  to  enable  one  to  pass  upon 
its  merits  as  a  competitor  of  the  blackberry  and  dew- 
berry. (See  Bulletin  45,  Rhode  Island  Experiment 
Station,  for  an  account  of  its  behavior  in  the  east.) 
Although  I  have  not  had  opportunity  to  study  this 
berry  in  the  field,  I  am  unable  to  detect  evidences  of 
hybridity  in  herbarium  specimens  of  it;  and  it  does 
not  appear  to  present  characters  which  could  not 
readily  be  derived  directly  from  Rubus  vitifolius. 

Another  western  blackberry  which  has  been  much 
talked  about,  and  which  is  said  to  be  very  promising  for 
the  Pacific  coast,  is  the  Oregon  Everbearing  blackberry. 
It  has  also  been  called  the  Evergreen  and  Climbing 
blackberry.  This  is  Rubus  laciniatus,  a  plant  long  ago 
described  by  Willdenow,  and  the  nativity  of  which  is 
unknown.  It  is  now  generally  agreed  that  it  is  a 
cut -leaved  form  of  the  common  European  bramble  or 
blackberry,  Rubus  fruticosus.  It  has  long  been  in  cul- 
tivation as  an  ornamental  plant,  and  it  has  distinct 
merits  in  this  capacity;  but  in  the  eastern  states  it  has 
never  attracted  attention  for  its  fruit. 

A  blackberry  which  has  been  singularly  overlooked 
by  botanists  is  one  which  was  described  by  Bigelow  in 
his  "Florula  Bostoniensus"  as  long  ago  as  1824,  as 
Rubus  setosus  (Figs.  80,  81).  This  was  thought  by 
Torrey  and  Gray,  in  the  "Flora  of  North  America," 
to  be  a  form  of  Rubus  hispidus.  A  most  careful 
study  of  it  has  been  made  by  Professor  Peck,  state 
botanist  of  New  York,  who,  not  recognizing  it  as 


Fig.  80.    Jfiibnn  setomi*.     Half  si 


Fig.  81.    Rubus  setosus.     Drawing  made  from  specimen  named  Xubus  hispidus 
var.  ruberectus  by  Peek. 


RAND'S   BLACKBERRY  363 

Bigelow's  plant,  described  it  in  1891  as  Rubits  hispidus 
var.  snberectus  (Fig.  81).  It  bears  a  rather  small  black 
or  reddish  fruit,  ripening  in  July  and  August,  of  about 
the  quality  of  the  dewberry  fruit.  The  plant  is  ascend- 
ing or  half  erect,  the  older  stems  densely  clothed  with 
slender  but  stiff  slightly  bent  prickles.  The  leaflets 
are  very  strongly  toothed,  not  shining  as  in  Rubus  his- 
pidus, and  also  thinner  and  longer  than  in  that  species. 
The  plant  occurs  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania  and  New 
England.  It  is  not  cultivated.  (See  page  377.) 

A  slender  and  peculiar  woods  form  of  the  high -bush 
blackberry,  which  is  shown  half-size  in  Fig.  82,  is 
found  upon  Mt.  Desert,  coast  of  Maine,  westward  and 
northward,  and  which  I. once  named  Rubus  villosus  var. 
Randii  (see  Rand  and  Redfield's  "Flora  of  Mt.  Desert 
Island,"  p.  94,  1894),  in  compliment  to  Mr.  Edward  L. 
Rand,  who  has  been  a  most  energetic  explorer  of  the 
flora  of  the  interesting  island  where  it  is  found.  It 
gives  no  promise  to  the  cultivator,  but  the  student  of 
our  native  blackberries  may  like  a  characterization  of 
it,  for  the  variety  is  probably  widely  distributed  north- 
wards. Its  chief  botanical  marks  are  these  :  Low  and 
diffuse  (1  to  2%  feet  high),  the  canes  bearing  very 
few  and  weak  prickles  or  often  entirely  unarmed,  very 
slender  and  soft,  sometimes  looking  as  if  nearly  her- 
baceous ;  leaves  very  thin  and  nearly  or  quite  smooth 
beneath  and  on  the  petioles,  the  teeth  rather  coarse 
and  unequal  ;  cluster  short,  with  one  or  two  simple 
leaves  in  its  base,  not  villous,  and  very  slightly  if  at 
all  pubescent  ;  flowers  half  or  less  the  size  of  those  of 
the  blackberry  ;  fruit  small,  dry  and  "seedy."  Its  chief 
characters  are  its  low,  weak  and  practically  unarmed 
stems,  thin  leaves  and  small  flowers.  (See  page  385.) 


364          THE    EVOLUTION    OF     OUR    NATIVE     FRUITS 


The     Cloudberry, 
Rubus    Chamcemorus , 
an    herbaceous    little 
bramble  of  the  boreal 
parts  of  the  northern 
hemisphere,  affords  a 
most   excellent  fruit, 
which  is   much   used 
by   residents    of    the 
countries     where     it 
grows.      It  is  not  in 
cultivation      for     its 
fruit,  but  the  follow- 
ing  account  of   the   berry,   by  J.  M. 
Macoun   in  "Garden  and   Forest"  for 
1889,  is  so  interesting  that  I  transcribe 
it  for  the  conclusion  of  this  discussion 
of  the  rubus  fruits  : 

"The  Cloudberry,  which  is  found 
in  few  localities  south  of  the  Canadian 
boundary,  and  even  then  not  in  a  great 
abundance,  is  quite  common  and  greatly 
prized  in  Newfoundland,  Labrador,  Nova 


Fig.  82. 
Rand's  blackberry. 


CLOUDBERRY  365 

Scotia  and  northern  Quebec.  It  is  known  under  vari- 
ous names,  and  is  very  abundant  through  northern 
Canada,  extending  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  and 
north  to  the  Arctic  sea.  Growing  always  in  peat  bogs 
at  the  south,  and  further  north  in  open  boggy  places 
in  woods,  it  is  found  in  the  greatest  profusion  on  the 
barrens  beyond  the  northern  limit  of  tree  growth, 
occasionally  ripening  its  fruit  within  the  Arctic  Circle. 
In  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  is  very  susceptible  to  frost, 
and  that  frequently  the  fruit  does  not  mature  at  all,  it 
seems  to  improve  in  quality,  like  a  few  other  berries, 
toward  the  northern  limits  of  its  distribution. 

"  Rubus  arcticus  and  R.  Chamcemorus  are  frequently 
found  together,  the  broad,  rose -colored  flowers  of  the 
one  contrasting  beautifully  with  the  large,  white  ane- 
mone blossoms  of  the  other.  The  Cloudberry  resembles 
none  of  its  congeners  in  color  or  in  flavor.  The  rich 
amber  or  golden  berries  are  only  slightly  tinged  with 
deep  red  on  the  side  toward  the  sun  ;  and  they  never 
have  more  than  the  slightest  trace  of  acidity.  Indeed, 
so  tasteless  is  the  berry  that  it  can  hardly  be  eaten  at 
all  until  ripe.  The  berries  when  apparently  mature  are 
often  dry  and  insipid,  tasting  not  unlike  a  very  young 
apple;  indeed,  the  name  'Bake-apple  berry/  by  which 
it  is  known  in  the  maritime  provinces,  may  have  been 
given  to  it  on  account  of  the  real  or  supposed  resem- 
blance of  its  flavor  to  that  of  a  baked  apple. 

"When  quite  ripe,  however,  the  Cloudberry  has  an 
intensly  sweet,  honey -like  flavor,  slightly  recalling  that 
of  the  large  white  raspberry  of  cultivation  ;  and  then, 
if  eaten  in  small  quantities,  it  is  perhaps  the  most  de- 
licious of  our  northern  berries.  The  habitants  of 
Quebec  and  the  Indians  prefer  it  just  as  it  approaches 


366         THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

ripeness  and  before  it  has  lost  its  acid  taste  ;   but   to 
southerners  it  is  at  that  time  hardly  palatable. 

"It  is  known  in  northern  Quebec  and  about  Hud- 
sou's  Bay  as  the  Yellow-berry,  and  in  that  part  of 
the  country  there  is  no  fruit  more  sought  after  for 
cooking.  A  small  amount  of  sugar  is  needed  in  pre- 
paring it  for  the  table,  and  jam  made  from  this  berry 
has  such  a  rich  and  delicate  flavor,  so  unlike  that  made 
from  any  other  fruit,  that  at  several  of  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company's  posts  large  quantities  are  preserved  and 
sent  to  friends  at  home.  The  Chipvegan  Indians  of 
the  Mackenzie  river  valley  make  a  sugar  from  the 
juice  of  the  birch,  in  which  the  Cloudberries  are  cooked, 
and,  prepared  in  this  manner,  they  are  considered  a 
great  delicacy.  Few  birds  eat  the  Cloudbeny,  so  that 
when  they  are  not  picked  by  man  they  decay  slowly  on 
the  vines,  and  finally  drop  to  the  ground."  The  Cloud- 
berry is  often  mentioned  in  the  narratives  of  travelers 
in  the  arctic. 

The  Botanical  Names  of  the  Blackberries 
and  Dewberries 

The  most  curious  and  embarrassing  confusion  has  arisen  re- 
specting the  names  of  the  American  rubi  of  the  blackberry  and 
dewberry  group.  In  1753,  Linnaeus  described  Bubus  Canadensis. 
In  1789,  Alton  described  Eubus  mllosus.  Linnaeus'  species  has 
always  been  taken  to  be  the  common  dewberry  of  the  North,  and 
Alton's  species  has  been  taken  to  be  the  common  high-bush 
blackberry  of  the  North.  The  original  descriptions  indicate  that 
the  names  have  not  been  properly  applied  by  American  botanists. 
Consequently,  I  had  drawings  made  of  the  original  specimens  now 
deposited  in  London,  and  it  became  evident  at  once  that  the 
species  had  been  misunderstood.  I,  therefore,  laid  aside  the 
work  of  revision  of  the  group,  and,  consequently,  the  publication 


CONFUSION  IN  NOMENCLATURE         367 

of  this  book,  until  I  could  personally  examine  the  original  speci- 
mens. I  have  now  had  the  opportunity  of  examining  the  speci- 
mens of  Linnaeus  and  Aiton;  also  those  of  Willdenow  and  Link 
at  Berlin,  and  of  Michaux  at  Paris ;  and  through  the  courtesy  of 
Professor  Dr.  Beck,  I  have  obtained  drawings  and  full  notes  of 
the  specimens  of  Trattinnick  at  Vienna. 

Having  now  seen  the  original  types  of  the  American  black- 
berries and  dewberries,  I  am  able  to  make  a  new  disposition  of 
the  species.  Linnaeus'  Rubus  Canadensis  is  unmistakably  the 
thornless  blackberry,  which  was  described  in  1891  by  Britton  as 
Rubus  Millspaughii  (p.  323).  Aiton's  Rubus  villosus  is  unmistak- 
ably the  dewberry  of  the  North,  the  plant  to  which  we  have 
heretofore  applied  the  name  Rubus  Canadensis.  His  specimens 
are  mostly  sterile  shoots,  and  are  from  plants  which  were  grown 
in  the  Kew  gardens.  These  specimens  are  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration on  page  372.  Ordinarily  the  dewberry  is  not  villous,  and 
the  name,  therefore,  is  a  misnomer;  but  Aiton  made  the  name 
because  the  tips  of  the  verdurous  shoots  of  the  dewberry  contain 
a  villous  pubescence.  These  leafy  tips  of  the  dewberry  are 
rarely  seen  in  herbaria,  and  it  is,  therefore,  not  strange  that 
the  specimens  of  Aiton  have  been  misunderstood  ;  but  the 
specimens  are  nevertheless  unmistakably  the  dewberry. 

While  the  northern  dewberry  now  has  a  name  (Rubus  villosus), 
the  common  high-bush  blackberry  is  left  nameless.  Our  next 
resource,  therefore,  is  to  look  up  the  supposed  synonyms  of  the 
high-bush  blackberry.  The  Rubus  inermis  described  by  Willdenow 
in  1809,  and  credited  by  him  to  North  America,  is  one  of  these 
synonyms.  The  specimens  in  the  Berlin  herbarium  are  unmis- 
takably a  spineless  form  of  Rubus  ulmifolius  of  Greece!  This 
name  is,  therefore,  disposed  of.  The  next  name  in  order  of  pub- 
lication is  the  Ritbus  argutus  of  Link,  published  in  1822.  Link's 
specimens  in  Berlin  are  well  preserved,  and  are  unmistakably  the 
form  of  high -bush  blackberry  which  we  have  known  as  Riibun 
frnmltixHN.  This  plant  should  be  regarded  as  a  good  species;  and 
since  Rubus  argutus  was  published  two  years  earlier  than  fron- 
dostts,  that  name  must  stand.  Two  rubi  were  described  by 
Rafinesque  in  his  "Florula  Ludoviciana"  in  1817  —  Rubus  angu- 
lahis  and  Rnl>n*  nitiilnx.  Rafinesque  left  no  specimens,  and  his 
descriptions  are  so  meager  that  it  is  utterly  impossible  to  deter- 


368         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

mine  what  plants  he  meant  to  designate,  and  the  names  must, 
therefore,  be  dropped.  Kenriek  uses  the  name  Rubus  Americanus 
for  the  "bush  blackberry"  in  his  "New  American  Orchardist," 
1833;  but  he  probably  had  no  particular  form  of  blackberry  in 
mind,  and,  moreover,  the  name  Americanus  was  earlier  used  by 
Persoon  and  by  Prince. 

Rubus  flagellaris  of  Willdenow  is  a  puzzle.  The  specimens 
are  in  the  Berlin  herbarium,  and  are  well  preserved  (Fig.  83). 
Willdenow  says  that  the  thing  is  American,  but  I  have  never 
seen  an  American  plant  like  it,  and  it  seems  to  me  to  be  one  of 
the  European  dewberries.  It  is  a  significant  fact  that  this  plant, 
which  Willdenow  described  from  cultivated  species,  is  still  grow- 
ing in  a  number  of  the  botanical  gardens  of  Europe  under  the 
name  Rubus  Canadensis.  If  it  is  American,  it  is  a  most  unusual 
form,  modified  by  cultivation;  but  I  suspect  that  it  is  only  a 
form  of  a  European  species,  allied  to  Rubus  ccesius. 

The  Rubus  procumbens  of  Muhlenberg's  Catalogue  cannot  be 
identified.  I  have  not  been  able  to  discover  that  he  sent  any 
specimens  under  this  name  to  the  European  herbaria. 

In  1823,  Trattinnick  described  two  species  of  rubi  (Rubus 
floridus,  Fig.  91 ;  and  Rubus  Enslenii,  Fig.  87 ' .  These  have  been 
doubtfully  referred  to  the  dewberry  of  the  North.  His  Rubus 
floridus  is  a  peculiar  and  well-marked  form  of  the  plant  which 
must  now  be  called  Rubus  argutus,  whereas  his  Rubus  Enslenii  is 
the  plant  which  Britton  has  recently  named  Rubus  Bailey  anus. 

The  Rubus  suberectus  of  Hooker,  1833,  collected  by  Eichard- 
son  in  the  Lake  Superior  region,  is  in  the  herbarium  at  Kew, 
and  is  the  plant  which  we  must  now  call  Rubus  argutus,  Link. 

Of  all  the  American  blackberries  and  dewberries  of  which 
types  are  in  the  European  herbaria,  only  Michaux's  Rubus  trivialis 
has  been  properly  understood;  and  even  this  species  has  been 
much  confounded  with  forms  of  the  northern  dewberry. 

Having  now  identified  the  various  type  specimens  in  the 
European  herbaria,  we  are  prepared  to  rename  the  American 
species.  Before  doing  this,  however,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
clarify  our  minds  in  respect  to  the  natural  groups  or  species  of 
the  plants  themselves.  While  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  Ameri- 
can rubi  will  never  be  the  subject  of  such  minute  division  as 
the  European  congeners  have  been,  it  is  nevertheless  imperative 


THE     KINDS    OP     BLACKBERRIES 


Fig.  83.    The  type  of  Willdenow 
Rubus  flagellaris,  in  Berlin. 


that  our  recognized  species  should  be  broken  up,  if  we  are  to 
clearly  understand  them.  Of  the  high-bush  blackberry,  there 
are  three  general  types  or  categories:  (1)  The  common  high- 
bush  blackberry  of  the  North,  which  has  large,  pointed,  villous 
leaves  and  long,  open,  pubescent  racemes.  (See  Figs.  59,  60.) 
This  is  the  plant  which  is  ordinarily  taken  as  the  type  of 


370         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

Bubus  villosus,  but  strangely  enough,  although  the  common  black- 
berry, it  now  has  no  scientific  name.  I,  therefore,  propose  to  call 
it  Bubus  nigrobaccus  (p.  379).  (2)  The  leafy-cluster  type  of  black- 
berry, which  is  characterized  by  a  stiffer  and  mostly  shorter 
growth,  by  smaller  and  usually  narrower  leaves,  short  and  leafy 
flower-clusters,  and  the  general,  although  not  complete,  iibsence 
of  villousness  (Figs.  64,  65,  90).  This  plant  must  now  receive  the 
name  Bubus  argutus,  Link,  and  its  synonyms  are  Bubus  frondosus, 
Bigelow,  and  Bubus  suberectus,  Hooker.  A  very  large -flowered, 
short -clustered  and  blunt-leaved  type  of  this  is  the  plant  which 
Trattinnick  described  as  Bubus  floridus,  and  which  I  now  propose 
to  designate  as  Bubus  argutus  var.  floridus.  (3)  The  thornless 
blackberry  type  (Figs.  92,  93  \  which  must  now  be  called  Bubus 
Canadensis,  a  synonym  of  which  is  Bubus  Millspaughii. 

Another  form  of  the  high-bush  blackberry  is  a  plant  which 
Porter  has  named  Bubus  Allegheniensis,  or  the  mountain  black- 
berry. I  have  not  had  opportunity  to  examine  this  plant  in  its 
native  state.  The  herbarium  specimens  do  not  always  seem  to 
be  distinct  enough  to  warrant  the  separation  of  the  plant  from 
the  common  high-bush  blackberry,  but  since  Professor  Porter 
has  studied  the  plant  in  its  native  state  for  many  years,  and 
insists  in  several  publications  upon  its  distinctness,  I  shall  accept 
it  as  a  distinct  species  (p.  381).  I  am  the  more  inclined  to  this 
opinion  since  if  the  common  high-bush  blackberry  were  to  be 
united  with  the  mountain  blackberry,  Bubus  Allegheniensis  would 
have  to  be  taken  as  the  type  of  the  species;  and  I  should  consider 
it  unfortunate  to  take  a  mountain  form  as  the  type  of  a  common 
continental  plant.  This  arrangement  gives  an  analytical  and 
perspicuous  treatment  to  the  high-bush  blackberries,  and  should 
.be  the  means  of  making  the  various  forms  better  known.  It 
goes  without  saying  that  in  plants  which  are  so  confused  as 
rubi,  intermediate  and  perplexing  forms  will  be  found;  but  even 
these  forms  can  be  best  understood  when  the  plants  are  broken 
up  into  their  reigning  types. 

Coming  to  the  dewberries,  we  find  ourselves  in  new  trouble. 
In  the  first  place,  as  we  have  seen,  the  common  dewberry 
of  the  North  must  be  Bubus  villosus  and  not  Bubus  Cana- 
densis.  This  dewberry  includes  two  or  three  distinct  forms, 
two  of  which  I  propose  to  separate  at  once  as  distinct  species. 


EARLY    SPECIFIC     NAMES  371 

One  of  these  species  I  shall  now  call  Bubus  invisus  (p.  374),  it 
being  the  plant  which  I  have  formerly  described  as  Bubus  Cana- 
densis  var.  invisus.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  I  think,  of  the  distinct- 
ness of  this  species  from  the  common  dewberry.  Of  the  merits 
of  the  other  species,  I  am  not  so  well  convinced,  although  from 
a  study  of  material  from  several  sources,  I  have  decided  to 
separate  it  as  a  species.  It  is  the  form  which  has  been  described 
by  Torrey  and  Gray  as  Bubus  villosus  var.  humifusus  (see  Fig.  77, 
page  353).  This  plant  has  been  recognized  by  Britton  as  specifi- 
cally distinct,  and  he  has  named  it  Bubus  Baileyanus.  As  before 
said,  however,  this  is  the  plant  which  Trattinnick  has  de- 
scribed as  Bubus  Enslenii,  and  this  name  must  stand.  There 
are  still  two  or  three  forms  of  the  common  dewberry  of  the 
North  which  may  need  to  be  separately  named,  and  I  suspect 
that  in  the  near  future  one  or  two  of  them  will  be  elevated  to 
specific  rank.  One  is  the  plant  which  I  formerly  described  as 
var.  roribaccus,  and  the  other  is  now  described  by  Professor 
Card,  from  notes  in  my  herbarium,  as  var.  Michiganensis  (p.  374). 
The  history  of  Bubus  Enslenii  brings  up  an  interesting 
question  in  respect  to  the  variation  of  the  high-bush  blackberry. 
Torrey  supposed  this  to  be  a  form  of  the  common  blackberry; 
and  it  has  been  generally  considered  by  botanists  that  the  high- 
bush  blackberry  has  trailing  forms  (p.  352).  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
however,  it  has  not.  There  are  certain  hybrids  between  the  dew- 
berry and  high -bush  blackberry,  but  they  are  so  distinct  in  their 
characters  as  to  be  easily  recognized.  It  was  one  of  these 
hybrids  which  Willdenow  had  when  he  made  the  name  Bubus 
lirtrropliHllus.  The  name  was  published  with  no  description, 
so  that  it  is  not  allowed  to  stand  in  botanical  nomenclature. 

The  following  running  sketch  will    enable  us    to  understand 
the  botanical  characters  of  the  East-American  blackberries  and 
dewberries  : 
A.  DEWBERRIES  :    plants    trailing,   or   at   most   slightly   ascending, 

usually  rootiiit/  by   means  of  tips. 
B.  Fruit  normally  black  (soiHrtiincs  running  into  white  forms). 

c.  Peduncles  few-  to  several -flowered. 
1.    HI-BUS  VILLOSUS  Alton,  Hort.   Kew.  ii.  210  (1789).     B.  Cuna- 

/fr/i.sj.s,  authors,  not  Linn.     Common  dewberry  (Figs.  74,  84). 
A  strong- growing  prickly  plant,  mostly  with  glabrous  stems, 


Fig.  84.    Rubus  villosus  of  Aiton.     Prom  original  specimens, 
in  London.    X  one-half.    (Page  373.) 


THE    DEWBERRY  373 

which  sometimes  rise  a  foot  or  two  above  the  earth  and  are 
then  prostrate  ;  leaves  medium  to  rather  large,  firm  and  thick, 
of  three  to  seven  oval  or  ovate,  rather  long-pointed  and  sharply 
doubly-toothed  leaflets  ;  racemes  erect,  with  leaf-like  bracts 
and  from  1-  to  3-flowered,  the  central  flowers  opening  first  ;  fruit 
variable,  but  usually  globose  or  ovoid,  with  a  few  large  and 
rather  loose  drupelets,  shining  black,  sour,  but  becoming  sweet 
at  full  maturity.  This  is  the  common  dewberry  of  the  northern 
states,  growing  along  the  roadsides  and  on  banks,  the  strong 
stems  often  reaching  a  length  of  five  to  eight  feet.  The  species 
has  a  wide  range,  occurring  as  far  south  as  Florida,  and  west 
and  southwest  to  Kansas,  Oklahoma  and  Arizona.  In  its 
southern  ranges,  it  has  been  confounded  with  R.  trivialis.  It 
is  a  very  variable  species,  and  it  is  probable  that  future  obser- 
vations will  show  that  it  should  be  broken  up  into  two  or  three 
specific  types.  The  form  which  Aiton  had  (Fig.  84),  and  which 
is  here  intended,  is  the  one  with  large  and  firm,  glabrous  leaflets 
and  strong  growth.  Another  form  has  much  smaller  and  ashy 
pubescent  leaflets,  weak  growth,  and  fewer-flowered  peduncles  ; 
but  I  am  not  able  to  separate  these  two  forms.  So  far  as  I 
have  observed  them,  they  seem  to  be  associated  with  soil  and 
environment. 

The  Fig.  84  is  made  from  Alton's  type  of  Rubus  villosus  in 
the  Natural  History  Museum  at  South  Kensington,  London.  A 
and  B  are  exact  copies;  C  is  a  leaf  from  a  third  and  remaining 
sprig.  The  large  specimen  is  the  tip  of  a  verdurous  trailing 
shoot.  Such  shoots  have  a  villous  pubescence,  although  the 
species  is  normally  glabrous.  The  name  Bubus  villosus  is,  there- 
fore, an  unfortunate  one  for  the  common  dewberry  (p.  367). 

In  cultivation,  B.  villosus  has  given  a  number  of  varieties  of 
dewberries,  among  them  being  the  Windom,  Geer,  Mayes  or 
Austin,  Lucretia's  Sister,  and  evidently  the  Maynard. 

Var.  RORIBACCUS.*  R.  Canadensis  var.  roribaccus  Bailey,  Amer. 

Gard.  xii.  82  (1891).     Lucretia  dewberry  (Figs.  71,  72,  85). 

A  robust  form,  distinguished  by  large  wedge-obovate,  jagged 

leaflets,   very    long    flower-stalks    and    large    flowers    (sometimes 

*Since  it  is  important,  as  a  matter  of  nomenclature,  to  know  the  date  of 
a  new  name,  it  is  hereby  stated  that  this  book  is  actually  published  October 
26.  1898. 


374         THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 


two  inches  across),  and  leaf -like  sepals.  This  is  represented 
in  cultivation  by  the  Lucretia  dewberry,  which  is  a  native  of 
West  Virginia.  (See  pages  332-335.)  I  am  in  doubt  as  to 
whether  this  variety  actually  occurs 
in  the  wild  state  except  in  the 
form  of  the  original  Lucretia  ;  that 
is,  it  may  be  a  mere  incidental  va- 
riation from  a  single  plant,  from 
which  we  have  derived  a  cultivated 
stock,  rather  than  a  true  geograph- 
ical form.  It  is  very  well  marked  in 
cultivation.  It  is  possible  that  the 
variation  has  been  brought  about 
by  domestication. 

Var.    MICHIGANENSIS       Card    in 
herb.     (Fig.  76,  p.  351.) 

A  robust  form,  with  woody 
stems  and  comparatively  few  weak 
recurved  prickles,  and  strong,  up- 
right, pubescent  flower-shoots,  long 
stipules  and  very  large  leaflets, 
which  are  very  deeply  and  irregu- 

Fig.  85.  Lucretia.  One-third  size,  larly  cut.  This  plant  has  been  col- 
lected by  myself  on  the  sandy  banks 

of  Lake  Michigan,  in  southwest   Michigan,  where  it  seems  to  be 

distinctly  marked. 

2.    RUBUS    INVISUS.     B.    Canadensis   var.    invisus   Bailey,    Amer. 
Gard.  xii.  83  (1891).     (Fig.  75,  86.) 

A  very  well-marked  dewberry,  with  somewhat  ascending  and 
not  very  prickly  stems,  a  light-colored  foliage,  and  large,  thinnish 
leaflets  which  are  coarsely  and  simply  toothed  ;  peduncles  forking 
into  two  or  three  parts  ;  pedicels  long,  the  flowers  large,  and 
sepals  leaf-like.  This  plant  grows  upon  banks  and  along  roads 
from  New  York  to  Alabama  and  west  to  Kansas  and  Missouri. 
The  large,  simple  notches  in  the  leaves,  and  the  long,  forking 
flower-clusters  readily  distinguish  this  plant  from  its  fellows. 


RUBUS    ENSLENII 


375 


Fig.  86.    Rubus  invisus. 


In   cultivation,    it   has    given   the    varieties    Bartel,    Mammoth, 
Never  Fail,  and  General  Grant. 

cc.  Peduncles  mostly  1-  or  2 -flowered. 

3.  RUBUS  ENSLENII  Tratt.,  Eos.  Monogr.  iii.  73  (1823).  R'.  vil- 
losus  var.  humifusus  Torr.  &  Gray,  Fl.  N.  Am.  i.  455 
(1840),  not  R.  humifusus  Weihe.  E.  invisus  Britton,  Bull. 
Torr.  Bot.  Club,  xx.  279  (1893).  R.  Baileyanus  Britton, 
Pterid.  &  Spermat.  N.  Am.  185  (1893-4).  (Figs.  77,  87.) 

A  weak  plant,  trailing  flat  upon  the  ground,  the  stems  some- 
times almost  herbaceous,  with  a  very  few  weak  prickles  and  thin 
leaflets;  flowers  solitary,  or  sometimes  in  twos,  on  short  leafy 
shoots  ;  fruit  small  and  loose,  black.  Grows  in  sandy  places, 


376         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 


13s 


probably  throughout  the  northern  states,  al- 
though I  know  it  only  from  southwestern 
Michigan  and  eastern  New  York.  The  spe- 
cies has  no  economic  importance,  being  too 
weak  and  soft  a  grower  to  promise  much 
reward  to  the  cultivator. 

*VA  4.  RUBUS  TRIVIALIS  Michx., 

v'     -      N,  Fl.    Bor.-Am.    i.    296 

(1803).  Southern  Dew- 
berry (Fig.  88). 

Stems  very  long,  often 
growing  ten  to  fifteen  feet, 
mostly  thickly  beset  with 
prickles  and  sometimes  with 
reddish  bristles ;  leaves  rather 
short-stalked,  and  compara- 
tively small,  rigid,  and  ever- 
green or  nearly  so,  the 
petioles  and  midribs  strong 
and  prickly,  the  leaflets  vary- 
ing from  nearly  oblong  to 
oblong-ovate ;  pedicels  mostly 
short  and  simple,  termina- 
ted by  a  large  and  showy 
flower ;  fruit  variable  in  size, 
usually  oblong,  and  more  or 
less  dry  and  seedy.  This 
species  is  widely  distributed 
from  Virginia  south  and 

from" the  type"sp"e7imen"in   southwest.       It  is  a  variable 
Trattinniek's     herbarium   species,    running    into   some 
at  Vienna.    X  one-half .       varieties   with  rather   broad 
leaves  and  very  large  flow- 
ers.    It  is  possible  that  two  species  are  confused 
under  this  name,  but  much  of  the  confusion  has 
arisen  from  the  confounding  of  E.  villosus  with  it. 
The  specimen  upon  which   Michaux  founded   the 
species  is  the  form  with  narrow,  hard  leaflets  and 


Fig.  87.   Rubus  Enslenii, 


VARIOUS     DEWBERRIES 


377 


Fig.  88.    Rubua  trivialis. 
One-third  size. 


short,   straight,  prickly  peduncles.      In   cultivation,   this    species 
has  given  the  Manatee,  Wilson  White  and  Bauer. 

In  the  southwest,  from  Missouri  to  Texas,  there  is  a  curious 
form  of  dewberry  which  I  have  at  various  times  intended  to  make 
the  type  of  a  new  species,  but  which 
may  be  a  series  of  hybrid  forms  be- 
tween B.  trivialis  and  R.  argutus.  It 
has  much  the  range  of  variation  of  the 
well-known  hybrid  of  the  northern  dew- 
berry and  blackberry,  and  until  I  have 
opportunity  to  study  the  plants  in  the 
field,  I  should  prefer  to  call  it  a  hybrid. 
It  is  sometimes  trailing,  and  some- 
times sub-erect.  It  is  variously  pubes- 
cent, is  usually  armed,  and  sometimes 
hispid  ;  the  flowers  are  sometimes  two 
or  three,  and  sometimes  in  elongated 
clusters  ;  the  leaves  are  very  variable, 

ranging  from  the  narrow  forms  of  some  strains  of   R.    trivialis 
almost  to  the  broader  forms  of  R.  argutus. 

BB.  Fruit  red  and  small,  scarcely  eatable. 

5.  RUBUS  HISPIDUS  Linn.  Sp.  PI.  493  (1753)  (Fig.  73). 

Stems  scarcely  woody,  but  lasting  over  winter,  perfectly 
prostrate,  and  beset  with  small,  reflexed,  weak  bristles,  sending 
up  many  short  and  leafy  flowering  shoots  ;  leaflets  mostly  three, 
obovate,  blunt  and  shining,  firm  and  thick  in  texture,  and 
tending  to  be  evergreen  ;  flowers  small  and  few  on  leafless  pe- 
duncles ;  fruit  of  few  grains,  red  or  purple  and  sour.  Sandy 
places  and  low  woods  in  the  northern  states,  and  southward  to 
the  mountains  of  South  Carolina.  Linnaeus'  specimen  is  well 
preserved  in  his  herbarium  in  London,  and  is  properly  under- 
stood by  American  botanists. 

AA.  BLACKBERRIES  :  characterized  by  erect  or  strict  growth  (No.  6 
often   an   exception],   and   the  plants   propagating  from 
suckers. 
B.  Plant  weak,  hispid  rather  than  thorny,  the  fruit  reddish. 

6.  RUBUS    SETOSUS   Bigelow,  PI.    Bost.   ed.  2,   198  (1824)  (Figs. 

80,  81). 
An  ascending  or  almost  erect   low-growing   plant,   the  older 


378          THE    EVOLUTION     OF     OUR    NATIVE     FRUITS 

stems  densely  clothed  with  very  slender  though  slightly  bent 
prickles;  leaflets  usually  large,  ovate  to  oblanceolate,  pointed, 
scarcely  shining,  very  strongly  toothed;  fruit  reddish  black.  In 
bogs  throughout  the  northern  states  and  southward  to  Florida 
and  Arkansas.  It  is  distinguished 
by  a  light  cast  of  foliage  and 
yellowish  prickles.  In  many  cases 
it  looks  as  if  it  were  a  hybrid 
between  a  blackberry  and  red 
raspberry,  and  has,  in  fact,  been 
taken  for  such.  It  has  ordi- 
narily, however,  been  con- 
founded with  E.  hispidus,  with 
which  it  has  little  in  common. 
The  long,  slender,  and  scat- 
tered bristles  and  diffuse,  open 
habit  distinguish  it  from  its 
,  allies. 


BB.  Plant  rather  low  and  stiff, 
very  thorny,  the  under 
surfaces  of  the  leaves 
white -pubescent ;  fruit 
Mack. 

RUBUS  CUNEIFOLIUS  Pursh., 
PI.  Am.  Sept.  347  (1814) 
(Figs.  70,  89). 

A  stiff  and  very  thorny  plant, 
growing  from  one  to  three  feet 
high  ;  leaflets  obovate,  thick, 
dull  green  above  and  white - 
tomentose  below ;  petioles  armed ; 
flower-clusters  rather  small  and 
short,  bearing  from  two  to  eight  flowers,  and  often  leafy 
below  ;  fruit  medium  size,  firm,  but  sweet  and  often  delicious. 
This  species  ranges  from  New  Jersey  to  Florida.  In  cultiva- 
tion, it  has  given  us  the  Topsy,  or  Tree,  blackberry,  which  is 
characterized  by  most  vicious  thorns.  Very  strong  and  verdur- 
ous shoots  of  the  Sand  blackberry  bear  oblong- ovate  leaflets, 


EUBUS    NIGROBACCUS  379 

which  are  distinctly  pointed  and  deeply  notched,  and  which  tend 
to  lose  their  pubescence.  This  fact  has  led  to  a  misunderstand- 
ing of  the  species.  The  garden  forms  have  this  character  of 
foliage;  in  fact,  the  Topsy,  when  growing  vigorously,  almost 
loses  the  white  color  of  the  leaves,  and  there  is  little  external 
appearance  to  indicate  that  it  belongs  to  B.  cuneifolius.  This 
fact  led  me  to  question  the  origin  of  the  Topsy  blackberry  from 
this  species,  but  a  study  of  the  plant  in  its  natural  haunts,  both  in 
the  North  and  the  South,  has  convinced  me  that  it  is  a  direct 
cultivated  offshoot  of  the  sand  blackberry. 

BBB.  Plant  diffuse  and  mostly  tall,  thorny,  the  leaves  and  in- 
florescence distinctly  glandular -  pubescent ;  fruit  normally 
black  (running  into  whitish  forms). 

8.  RUBUS  NIGROBACCUS.  B.  villosus,  authors,  not  Aiton.  Common 
High-bush  Blackberry,  Long-cluster  Blackberry  (Figs. 
59,  60). 

Distinguished  by  very  tall  and  usually  somewhat  recurved 
furrowed  stems,  strong  hooked  prickles,  three  to  five  large 
ovate  or  lance-ovate,  very  distinctly  pointed  leaflets,  which  are  on 
distinct  stalks,  the  middle  one  being  long- stalked  and  sometimes 
distinctly  heart-shaped;  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaves,  as  well 
as  the  framework  of  the  flower- clusters,  are  hairy  and  glandular; 
the  flower-cluster  elongated,  with  the  large  and  showy  flowers 
on  pedicels  an  inch  or  two  long,  which  stand  out  at  right 
angles  to  the  main  axis;  fruits  rather  firm,  long,  seedy,  mostly 
sweet  or  aromatic.  This  is  the  prevailing  high-bush  blackberry 
of  woods  and  fence  rows  of  the  North,  and  extends  as  far  south 
as  the  mountains  of  North  Carolina  and  west  to  Iowa,  Kansas 
and  Missouri.  It  is  perfectly  represented  in  Fig.  59.  In  cultiva- 
tion, it  has  given  the  class  known  as  the  long-cluster  black- 
berries, of  which  the  Taylor  and  the  Ancient  Briton  are  examples. 
The  reason  for  the  giving  of  a  new  name  to  the  common  black- 
berry is  explained  on  pages  366  to  368. 

Var.  SATIVCS.     B.    villosus  var.   sativus  Bailey,    Am.    Gard. 

xi.  719  (18901.    Short-cluster  Blackberry  (Figs.  61,  62,   63). 

Usually  somewhat  lower  in  growth,  the  leaflets  mostly  broader 

and  less  distinctly  long-pointed,  and  the  flower  clusters  distinctly 


THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 


shorter,  'raits  rounded  and  looser,  with  larger  drupelets.  This 
is  the  nondescript  blackberry  of  open  fields,  and  is  the  parent 
of  the  larger  part  of  the  short-cluster  or  garden  blackberries,  of 
which  the  Snyder  and  the  Kittatinny  are  the  leading  examples. 


Fig.  90. 
Kubus  argutus,  from  Florida. 


Var.  ALBINUS.      X.    viUosus   var.  alblnus   Bailey,  Am.    Gard 

xi.  720  (1890).     White   Blackberry. 

An  occasional   form  characterized  by  a  light  green  or  olive 

color  of  the  bark  and    amber-colored  fruits.    It  is  probably  an 

Ibinous  form  of  the  blackberry,  but  the  plants  which  I  have  seen 


VARIOUS    BLACKBERRIES  381 

growing  wild  have  the  long  clusters  of  R.  nigrobaccus  rather  than 
the  short  ones  of  the  var.  sativus. 

The  race  of  hybrids  between  the  blackberry  and  dewberry 
(R.  nigrobaccus  X  -B-  villosus)  has  already  been  mentioned  (Figs. 
66-69) .  These  hybrids  are  frequent  in  many  parts  of  the  northern 
states,  and  are  usually  readily  distinguished  from  either  the 
blackberry  or  the  dewberry  by  the  half-erect  habit,  the  broad  and 
jagged  leaflets,  the  forking,  small  flower-clusters,  and  the  small, 
loose-grained  fruits.  In  gardens,  offsprings  of  this  cross  are  the 
Wilson,  Wilson  Jr.,  and  Eathbun.  These  berries  are  valuable 
for  certain  purposes,  but  ordinarily  demand  special  care  and  treat- 
ment, and  are,  therefore,  not  adapted  to  wide  ranges  of  conditions. 

9.  RUBUS  ALLEGHENIENSIS   Porter,  Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club,  xxiii. 

153   (1896).      R.   villosus   var.    montanus   Porter,   I.e.   xvii. 

15  (1890).      R.    montanus   Porter,  1.  c.   xxi.   120   (1894)   not 

Wirtg.     Mountain  Blackberry. 

Plant  smaller  than  the  preceding  species,  and  rather  more 
slender  and  less  prickly;  the  branches  and  leaf -stalks  commonly 
reddish,  and  all  the  recent  parts  very  prominently  glandular; 
leaves  much  as  in  R.  nigrobaccus,  with  small  teeth  and  distinctly 
long-pointed,  prominently  pubescent  below;  fruit  small,  long  and 
narrow,  tapering  towards  the  top ;  drupelets  numerous  and  small, 
forming  a  dry  fruit  with  spicy  flavor.  This  species  occurs  on 
mountains  from  New  York  to  North  Carolina.  In  its  typical 
forms,  it  is  very  well  marked,  and  seems  to  be  worthy  specific 
rank;  but  in  intermediate  stations,  it  seems  to  grade  into  the 
species  (p.  370).  It  has  given  no  horticultural  forms. 

BBBB.  Plant   diffuse   or   strict,   mostly  tall,    thorny   or   unarmed, 
with  no  (or  very  little)  glandular  pubescence;  fruits  black. 

10.  KUBCS    ARGUTUS   Link,    Enum.    Hort.    Berol.   ii.   60  (1822). 

R.  frondosus  Bigel.,  PI.  Bost.  ed.  2,  199  (1824).  R.  villosus 
var.  frondosus  Torr.,  PI.  U.  S.  i.  487  (1824).  R.  suberectus 
Hook.,  PI.  Bor.-Am.  i.  179  (1833).  Leafy-cluster  Black- 
berry (Figs.  64,  65,  90). 

A  plant  of  comparatively  stiff  and  straight  growth,  usually 
distinctly  dwarfer  than  R.  nigrobaccus,  with  shorter  pointed,  often 
narrower  and  usually  more  rigid  leaflets;  stems  strong  and 


Rubus  argutus  var.  floridus.    Prom  Trattinnick's 
type  of  Rubus  floridus,  in  Vienna. 


VARIOUS    BLACKBERRIES 


383 


prickly,  und  the  whole  plant  glabrous  or  only  slightly  villous» 
except  in  some  of  the  very  young  parts  or  rarely  in  the  flo- 
rescence; flower-clusters  short  and  leafy.  Of  wider  range  than 
R.  nigrobaccus,  extending  from  Lake  Superior  and  New  Brunswick 
to  Florida,  Kansas,  Oklahoma  and  Mississippi.  It  is  less  common 


384         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 


Fig.  93.    Thornle 


in  the  North  than  R.  nigrobaccus,  but  in  the  South  takes  the  place 
of  that  species.  From  the  Carolinas  southward,  the  plant  seems  to 
have  a  habit  somewhat  different  from  the  northern  plant,  and 
it  may  be  that  the  southern  type  is  worthy  of  specific  rank.  The 


VARIOUS    BLACKBERRIES  385 

plant  is  apparently  common  in  Illinois  and  southward  in  the 
Mississippi  region.  The  canes  usually  lack  the  recurved  and 
willowy  habit  of  R.  nigrobaccus,  and  the  absence  of  the  villous 
pubescence  is  marked.  The  leaflets  are  often  canescent  below, 
and  usually  a  little  more  coarsely  toothed  than  in  R.  nigrobaccus. 
In  cultivation,  the  plant  has  given  us  Early  Harvest,  Brunton 
Early,  Earliest  of  All,  and  perhaps  Bangor;  and  the  plant  which 
is  cultivated  as  the  Dorchester  belongs  to  this  species,  but  I  do 
not  know  if  it  is  the  plant  which  was  originally  introduced 
under  that  name. 

Var.  FLORIDUS.  R.  floridus  Tratt.  Eos.  Monogr.  iii.  73  (1823). 
A  form  with  very  short  and  large-flowered  clusters,  the  floral 
leaves  wedge-obovate  and  rounded  at  the  top.  Trattinnick  says 
that  Enslen  collected  this  in  North  America.  What  its  range  may 
be  I  do  not  know.  I  have  seen  specimens  only  from  Alabama  and 
Mississippi.  It  has  given  no  cultivated  varieties,  so  far  as  I 
know.  (Fig.  91.) 

Var.   RANDII.    R.   villosus  var.   Randii  Bailey,   Band  &  Red- 
field,  PI.  Mt.  Desert,  94  (1894.)     (Fig.    82.) 

Low  and  diffuse,  l°-2/£°  high,  the  canes  bearing  very  few  and 
weak  prickles,  or  often  entirely  unarmed,  very  slender  and  soft, 
sometimes  appearing  as  if  nearly  herbaceous ;  leaves  very  thin, 
and  nearly  or  quite  smooth  beneath  and  on  the  petioles,  the  teeth 
rather  coarse  and  unequal;  cluster  stout,  with  one  or  two  simple 
leaves  in  its  base,  not  villous,  and  very  slightly,  if  at  all,  pu- 
bescent ;  flowers  half  or  less  the  size  of  those  of  R.  nigrobaccus  ; 
fruit  small,  dry  and  seedy.  Woods,  Mt.  Desert,  Maine,  New 
Brunswick,  and  Keweenaw  peninsula,  Lake  Superior. 

11.  RUBUS  CANADENSIS  Linn,  Sp.  PI.  494  (1753).     R.  Millspauglni 
Britton,  Bull.  Torr.  Bot.    Club  xviii.  366   (1891).     Thorn- 
less  Blackberry.     (Figs.  92,  93.)     See  pp.  322,  367. 
This  plant  has  the  general  habit  of  R.  nigrobaccus,  but  is  dis- 
tinguished by  its  long  and   slender  petioles,  mostly  narrow  and 
long  acuminate  leaves,  long  stipules,  and  especially  by  its  lack  of 
pubescence  and  the  general  absence  of  thorns.     It  is  apparently  a 
well-marked   species,    growing    throughout    the    country   in   the 
higher  elevations  from  North  Carolina  northward. 


VII 

VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   BERRY -LIKE   FRUITS 

ALTHOUGH  we  have  now  discussed  those  groups  of 
native  fruits  in  which  the  greatest  progress  has  been 
made,  there  still  remain  several  types  of  considerable 
importance;  and  one  of  these, — the  gooseberries, — is  in 
interest  second  only  to  the  raspberries  and  blackberries, 
among  improved  native  berries.  In  all  these  groups, 
however,  the  history  has  been  less  eventful  than  in 
those  already  discussed ;  and  since  it  is  our  primary 
purpose  to  record  only  what  has  been  done  and  not 
what  may  be  done,  these  remaining  plants  may  be 
given  brief  running  sketches  at  a  single  sitting. 

In  reveiwing  these  various  plants,  one  is  tempted  to 
call  attention  again  to  the  great  native  pomological 
wealth  of  North  America.  The  species  which  are  con- 
sidered in  this  book  are  but  a  small  fraction  of  the 
whole  number  of  promising  indigenous  species.  An- 
other century  will  see  types  of  fruits  of  which  we 
know  little  or  nothing,  but  it  is  impossible  to  prophesy 
from  what  native  sources  these  types  will  spring.  We 
have  seen  how  this  wealth  of  native  fruits  impressed 
the  explorers  and  colonists.  We  could  glean  abundant 
references  to  this  native  wealth  from  the  early  records. 
Thus,  William  Wood,  in  1634,  speaks  of  the  berries  in 
the  wilds  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  as  follows:  "There 
is  likewise  Strawberries  in  abundance,  verie  large  ones, 
some  being  two  inches  about ;  one  may  gather  halfe  a 
(386) 


ARCTIC    BERRIES  387 

bushell  in  a  forenooue :  In  other  seasons  there  bee 
Gooseberries,  Bilberries,  Resberries,  Treackleberries, 
Hurtleberries,  Currants ;  which  being  dryed  in  the 
sunne  are  little  inferiour  to  those  that  our  Grocers 
sell  in  England." 

But  even  the  high  north  has  its  treasures  of  native 
fruit.  In  fact,  it  is  one  of  the  marvels  of  travelers 
that  berries  are  so  plentiful  and  so  good  in  those  regions. 
Even  under  the  snow  they  preserve  their  character, 
and  are  an  indispensable  succor  when  the  snow  disap- 
pears in  the  spring.  It  is  literally  true  that  in  many 
parts  of  the  cold  north,  beyond  the  bounds  of  civili- 
zation, fruits  are  in  plentiful  supply  the  year  round. 

A  recent  note  in  "  Outing "  speaks  as-  follows  of  the 
native  fruits  of  Labrador:  "In  spite  of  latitude  and 
Arctic  current,  Labrador  is  the  home  of  much  that  is 
delicious  in  the  berry  world,  Three  varieties  of  blue- 
berries, huckleberries,  wild  red  currants,  having  a  pun- 
gent, aromatic  flavor,  unequaled  by  the  cultivated 
varieties,  marshberries,  raspberries,  tiny  white  capillaire 
tea-berries,  with  a  flavor  like  some  rare  perfume,  and 
having  just  a  faint  suggestion  of  wintergreen ;  squash- 
berries,  pear- berries  and  curlew-berries,  the  latter  not 
so  grateful  as  the  others,  but  a  prime  favorite  with 
the  Esquimaux,  who  prefer  it  to  almost  any  other; 
and  lastly,  the  typical  Labrador  fruit,  which,  excepting 
a  few  scattering  plants  in  Canada  and  Newfoundland, 
is  found  nowhere  outside  of  the  peninsula — the  gor- 
geous bake -apple  [Rultus  Cliamwmorus].  These  cover 
the  entire  coast,  from  the  St.  Lawrence  to  Ungava. 
Their  beautiful  geranium -like  leaves  struggle  with  the 
reindeer  moss  upon  the  islands,  carpet  alike  the  low 
valleys  and  the  highest  hilltops,  and  even  peep  from 


388         THE     EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

banks  of  everlasting  snow.  Only  one  berry  grows 
upon  each  plant,  but  this  one  makes  a  most  delicious 
mouthful.  It  is  the  size  and  form  of  a  large  dewberry, 
but  the  color  is  a  bright  crimson,  half -ripe,  and  a 
golden  yellow  at  maturity.  Its  taste  is  sweetly  acid,  it 
is  exceedingly  juicy,  and  so  delicate  that  it  might  be 
thought  impossible  to  preserve  it." 

In  a  recent  report  to  Congress  on  the  agricultural 
possibilities  of  Alaska,*  Walter  H.  Evans  writes  as 
follows  of  the  wild  fruits  :  "Alaska  is  preeminently  a 
land  of  small  fruits  and  berries.  But  little  attention 
has  been  given  to  their  cultivation.  What  few  attempts 
have  been  made  seem  to  promise  well.  Hardly  any 
berries  are  cultivated  except  strawberries,  currants  and 
raspberries.  Of  these,  both  wild  and  cultivated  forms 
were  seen  growing,  and  the  adaptability  of  the  wild 
plants  to  domestication  was  very  evident.  The  wild 
strawberry  was  seen  under  cultivation  at  Wrangell,  and 
specimens  of  Bubus  steUatns,  known  as  dewberry, 
'morong,'  and  'knesheneka,'  are  growing  in  a  garden 
at  Sitka  with  apparently  considerable  success,  and  it 
seems  probable  that  more  could  be  done  in  this  line. 
The  flavor  of  most  of  the  Alaskan  berries  was  found  to 
be  excellent,  and  some  of  them  might  be  worthy  of 
introduction  into  portions  of  the  states. 

"Of  the  berries  which  have  the  widest  distribution, 
may  be  mentioned  the  salmon  berries  (Bubus  spectabi- 
lis);  two  kinds  of  cranberries,  the  high -bush  ( Vibur- 
num pauciflorum)  and  the  small  cranberry  ( Vacrinium 
Vitis-Idcea) ;  red  and  black  currants  (Bibes  rubrum 
and  B.  laxiflorum) ;  crowberries  (Empetrum  nigrum) ; 
huckleberries  (Vaccinium  uliginosum  and  its  variety, 

*Bull.  48,  Office  of  Exp.  Stations,  Dept.  of  Agric. 


ALASKAN    BERRIES  389 

;  blueberries  (Vaccinium  parviflorum  and 
F.  ovali foli tun) ;  bunehberries  (Cornus  Canadensis  and 
C.  Suecica);  raspberries  (Rubus  strigosus) ;  elderberries 
(SambucHS  racemosa) ;  and  the  'molka'  berry  (Rubus 
Chamifmonis) .  Of  less  general  distribution  are  straw- 
berries (Frngaria  Chiloensis) ,  dewberries  (Rubus  stel- 
latus),  thimbleberries  (JR.  parviflorus),  salal  berries 
(Gaultheria  Shallon),  bog  cranberries  (Vaccinium 
Oxycoccus},  wine  or  bear  berries  (Aretostapkylos 
alpina)i  etc. 

"Many  of  these  berries  are  utilized  in  various  ways 
by  the  native  and  white  population.  In  addition  to  the 
consumption  of  fresh  berries,  there  are  considerable 
quantities  stored  up  in  various  ways  for  winter  use. 
The  white  population  can,  preserve,  and  make  jelly  of 
the  different  kinds,  while  among  the  natives  the  prin- 
cipal method  of  preserving  them  is  in  the  almost  uni- 
versal seal  oil,  a  vessel  filled  with  berries  preserved  in 
this  way  forming  with  many  of  the  natives  a  '  potlatch  ' 
by  no  means  to  be  despised.  Some  of  the  berries  are 
utilized  to  a  considerable  extent  in  making  wine,  the 
wineberry  of  Kadiak  being  largely  used  in  that  way." 

The   Gooseberry 

Of  native  gooseberries  there  are  many  kinds,  inhab- 
iting almost  every  part  of  our  great  territory.*  The 
gooseberry  of  history-  is  a  native  of  the  Old  World,  and 
in  some  parts  of  Europe,  particularly  in  England,  it  is 
very  popular,  and  has  reached  a  high  degree  of  perfec- 
tion. This  European  gooseberry  was  early  brought  to 

•Descriptions  of  all  these  species,  with  pictures  of  many  of  them,  are  to  be 
found  in  Card's  "Bush-Fruits." 


390         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

this  country,  but  its  success  is  vicarious  at  the  best, 
owing  to  the  attacks  of  a  native  fungus  or  mildew. 
Wild  berries,  therefore,  were  forced  upon  the  attention 
of  experimenters.  Kenrick  (1833),  who  is  always 
strong  on  the  native  fruits,  mentions  no  named  varie- 
ties of  American  origin,  even  in  the  eighth  edition  of 
his  "New  American  Orchardist,"  1848;  but  he  speaks 
of  a  report  of  excellent  wild  gooseberries  growing  in 
the  valley  of  the  Columbia  river.  Goodrich,  however, 
remarks  in  his  "Northern  Fruit -Culturist"  (Burlington, 
Vt.),  1849,  that  "we  have  it  from  good  authority  that 
native  sorts  have  been  discovered  both  in  New  Hamp- 
shire and  Vermont,  well  adapted  to  garden  culture." 

Apparently  the  first  native  gooseberry  to  receive  a 
name  was  one  originated  by  Abel  Houghton,  of  Lynn, 
Mass.,  and  which  now  bears  his  name-  How  Hough- 
ton  came  by  this  gooseberry  seems  not  to  be  known. 
The  earliest  record  I  know  of  it  is  in  1847,  when  it 
was  shown  before  the  Massachusetts  Horticultural 
Society.  The  entry  in  Manning's  history  of  the 
society  is  the  following:  "The  Houghton's  Seedling 
gooseberry,  the  first  of  those  native  varieties  which 
have  proved  so  valuable  for  their  exemption  from  mil- 
dew, was  exhibited  by  Josiah  Lovett  on  the  7th  of 
August."  In  Downing's  "Horticulturist"  for  1848,* 
appears  the  first  full  description  : 

"HOUGHTON'S  GOOSEBERRY.— I  have  been  expecting 
a  private  opportunity  to  forward  you,  ere  this,  a  box 
of  gooseberries,  of  the  best  variety  I  have  ever  seen. 
It  is  so  desirable  a  sort,  that  I  could  not  well  refrain 
from  forwarding  a  sample,  as  I  now  do,  by  express. 


THE    HOUGHTON    GOOSEBERRY  391 

I  regret  that  the  specimens  are  only  the  gleanings  of 
four  bushes,  my  whole  stock  of  this  kind.  This 
gooseberry  is  a  seedling,  called  here  Houghton's.  It, 
I  have  no  doubt,  was  raised  from  seed  from  our 
native  gooseberry.  Its  leaf,  as  you  will  perceive  by 
the  enclosed  shoot,  bears  evidence  of  this  origin. 
This  is  the  only  gooseberry  cultivated  that  does  not 
mildew  under  any  circumstances.  The  cultivators  in 
Lynn,  Mass.,  where  this  fruit  originated,  have  grown 
it  for  three  or  four  years,  and  their  testimony  accords 
with  my  assertion.  The  growth  is  exceedingly  thrifty, 
making  long  pendent  shoots,  similar  to  an  English 
variety  called  'Crown  Bob.'  I  have  nineteen  table 
varieties,  received  four  years  since  from  Cunningham 
&  Sons,  Liverpool,  and  for  my  taste,  Houghton's  Seed- 
ling surpasses  them  all,  notwithstanding  the  fruit  is 
not  so  large  as  the  European  varieties.  Most  of  the 
fruits  I  now  send  you,  were  taken  from  shoots  grown 
within  one  inch  of  the  soil.  I  have  picked  at  least 
ten  quarts  of  fruit  from  four  bushes,  which  were 
layers  two  years  since.  I  think  that  the  Houghton's 
Seedling  will  supplant  almost  every  foreign  variety 
from  our  soil.  The  long  shoots  which  spring  from 
the  bottom  of  the  stock  often  take  root  themselves. 
It  will  be  a  fine  variety  for  training,  as  it  makes  long 
shoots,  and  fruits  prodigiously,  even  to  the  extreme 
end  of  the  previous  year's  growth. 

"Yours  very  truly,  in  haste, 

"JOHN  M.  IVES. 

"SALEM,  August  15,  1847." 

"(If  this  is  a  seedling  from  an  indigenous  goose- 
berry, as  it  appears  to  be,  and  one  which,  being 
entirely  adapted  to  our  climate,  never  mildews,  it 


392         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUE    NATIVE    FRUITS 

deserves  attention.  We  regret  the  berries  were  heated 
before  they  reached  us,  so  that  we  could  not  judge  of 
their  flavor.— ED.)" 

The  Houghton  is  again  mentioned  in  the  ''Horti- 
culturist" in  vol.  iii.  page  119,  and  in  the  volume  for 
1854,  page  104.  Cole  has  it  in  his  "American  Fruit 
Book"  in  1849,  using  an  illustration  from  the  "Horti- 


Fig.  94.    Leaves  of  Biles  Grossularia.      Fig.  95.    Leaves  of  R.  oxyacanthoides. 

culturist."  Thomas  inserted  it,  but  no  other  native 
gooseberry,  in  the  fourth  edition  of  "American  Fruit 
Culturist,"  1850.  Downing  first  mentions  it  in  "Fruits 
and  Fruit  Trees"  in  the  revision  of  1860,  and  Barry 
described  it  in  "Fruit  Garden"  the  same  year. 

Hoping  to  gain  some  knowledge  of  Houghton,  I 
applied  to  Walter  B.  Allen,  president  of  the  Houghton 
Horticultural  Society  of  Lynn,  who  replies  as  follows, 
under  date  of  March,  1896:  "The  Houghton  goose- 
berry was  first  produced,  some  sixty  years  ago,  by 
one  Abel  Houghton  of  this  city  (then  town)  of  Lynn. 
Mr.  Houghton,  we  are  told,  took  great  interest  in  hor- 


AHEL     HOnJHTOX 


ticulture,  and  many  are  now  living  who  recollect  his 
In  -a  ut  if  ul  flower  garden,  almost  the  only  one  of  note 
in  Lynn  in  those  early  days.  Mr.  Hough  ton  was  not  a 
native  of  Lynn,  as  we  understand  it,  and  there  are  no 
descendants  of  his  that  we  know  of.  He  was  called 
Abel  Houghton,  Jr.,  so  we  infer  that  his  father's 
name  was  Abel.  Mr.  Houghton  died  many  years  ago, 
but  when  our  society  was  organized,  about  twenty 
years  ago,  many  of  the  chief  promoters  of  the  move- 
ment, recalling  the  lovely  flower  garden  of  Abel 
Houghton,  Jr.,  decided  to  pass  his  name  down  by 
having  it  placed  in  Article  I.  of  our  Constitution." 

The  second  development  in  the  evolution  of  Amer- 
ican gooseberries  was  the  production  of  a  seedling 
of  the  Houghton  by  Downing,  at  Newburgh,  N.  Y. 
The  earliest  account  of  it  I  know  is  by  "Rusticus,"  in 
the  "Horticulturist"  for  1853,*  as 
follows:  "Downing's  Seedling  Goose- 
berry, the  largest  yet  known,  being 
about  twice  the  size  of  Houghton's 
Seedling,  its  parent.  Pale  or  light 
green,  without  any  blush,  and  smooth. 
The  skin  is  very  thin,  and  the  fruit 
as  delicate  and  tender  as  any  European 
gooseberry  in  its  native  soil.  The 
flavor  and  aroma  are  perfect;  sweet, 
with  plenty  of  vinous  subacid.  The 
first  describer  says:  'I  experienced 
the  same  satisfaction  as  I  did  in  tast- 
ing the  Delaware  and  Rebecca  grapes.  It  comes  up  to  the 
best  English  varieties  in  our  very  different  climate.'  " 

This   berry,  now  known  as    the   Downing,   is   the 

*Vol.  viii.  313. 


Fig.  96.     Crown  Bob, 
an  English  goose- 
berry. 


394 


THE     EVOLUTION     OP     OUR     NATIVE     FRUITS 


standard  of  excellence  in  American  gooseberries,  and 
is  probably  grown  more  extensively  than  all  other 
varieties  combined ;  and  yet  it  is  only  two  removes 
from  the  wild  species. 

A  third  native  gooseberry  was  described  in  the 
"Horticulturist,"  in  I860,*  as  the  Mountain  Seedling. 
This  variety  was  the  subject  of  an  editorial  note  in 
"Gardener's  Monthly,"  for  February,  1863, t  at  which 


a  ig.  97.     Wild  Ribes  oxyacanthoides.    Natural  size. 

place  an  inaccurate  figure  is  also  given.  This  variety 
is  little  grown  at  present,  but  it  is  interesting  as  being 
the  only  domestic  named  variety  of  another  species. 

What,  now,  are  these  species  of  gooseberries !  The 
English  type  is  Ribes  Grossularia,  characterized  by  a 
low,  stiff  habit,  firm  and  thickish  leaves  with  revolute 
margins  (Fig.  94),  a  downy  ovary,  and  more  or  less 
pubescent  or  bristly  fruit  (Fig.  96).  The  Houghton  is 
a  form  of  the  native  Ribes  oxyacantkoides,  a  species  of 

•Vol.  xv.  403.        tVol.  v.  56. 


Fig  98.    Houghtou,  first  remove  from  the  wild  species.    Natural  size. 


Fig.  99.    Downing,  second  remove  from  the  wild  species.    Two-thirds  iiaturul  size. 


396         THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

more  slender,  graceful  habit  than  the  other,  thinner 
and  plane-edged  leaves  (Fig.  95),  and  smooth  ovary 
and  fruit  (Figs.  97-99).  This  wild  gooseberry  is  na- 
tive in  swales  and  low  woods  in  the  northern  states, 
and  westward  to  Colorado.  Pale  Red,  a  variety  which  is 
popular  in  many  places,  is  also  Ribes  oxyacanthoides  ; 
and  so,  too,  I  am  convinced,  is  the  Downing.  Beach*  has 
recently  suggested  that  the  Downing  is  a  hybrid  of 
Ribes  oxyacantlioides  and  R.  Grossularia,  giving,  among 
other  reasons  for  such  belief,  the  fact  that  its  seedlings 
vary  towards  both  species.  But  even  if  the  two  species 
were  distinct  enough  to  allow  young  plants  to  be  re- 
ferred definitely  to  one  or  the  other,  I  should  still  doubt 
the  hybrid  origin  of  the  Downing.  The  evolution  of 
these  gooseberries  is  graphically  shown  in  Figs.  97  to  99. 

The  commonest  wild  gooseberry  east  of  the  Plains 
is  the  spiny -fruited,  thick-skinned  and  long -clustered 
species,  Ribes  Cynosbati,  Fig.  100.  It  is  to  this  species 
that  the  Mountain  belongs  (page  394) .  Beach  considers 
this  variety  to  be  a  hybrid  between  Ribes  Cynosbati 
and  the  European  gooseberry.  Although  the  fruit 
of  Ribes  Cynosbati  is  normally  hairy  or  spiny,  smooth- 
fruited  forms  often  occur.  Several  persons  have  made 
promising  efforts  to  ameliorate  the  species. t 

Judged  by  European  standards,  the  American  goose- 
berry is  yet  far  short  of  perfection.  The  English 
gooseberry  fanciers  have  kept  records  of  the  heaviest 
berries  at  the  shows  for  two  generations,  much  as  a 
horse  fancier  keeps  records  of  fast  stock.  The  fol- 
lowing records  from  the  "Gooseberry  Growers'  Reg- 
ister" for  1880  may  interest  the  reader: 

*Bull.  114,  N.  Y.  State  Exp.  Sta. 

tSee,  for  example,  B.  A.  Mathews,  in  Kept.  Iowa  Hort.  Soc.  1893. 


THE    BIG    ENGLISH    GOOSEBERRIES 


397 


HEAVIEST  GOOSEBERRY  GROWN  EACH  YEAR  FROM  1809  TO  1880 


Year 

Name 

Weight 

Tear 

Name 

Weight 

dwt 

s.  grs. 

iwts. 

I//-.V. 

1809 

Sportsman 

18 

22X 

1845 

London 

36 

L6 

1810 

Crown  Bob 

21 

7 

1846 

London 

27 

21 

1811 

Crown  Bob 

23 

18% 

1847 

London 

28 

0 

1812  Seed. 

Overall 

19 

10 

1848 

London 

31 

19 

1813 

Crown  Bob 

'I'l 

21 

1849 

London 

27 

1<» 

1814 

Viper 

25 

22 

1850 

London 

27 

10 

1815 

Crown  Bob 

25 

2 

1851 

London 

27 

12 

1816 

Huntsman 

26 

0 

1852 

London 

37 

7 

1817 

Highwayman 

26 

17 

1853 

London 

31 

4 

1818 

Yaxley  Hero 

24 

14 

1854 

London 

31 

16 

1819 

Top  Sawyer 

26 

17 

1855 

Paris 

31 

17 

1820 

Huntsman 

25 

18 

1856 

Seedling 

29 

0 

1821 

Huntsman 

25 

6 

1857 

London 

29 

11 

1822 

Rough  Robin 

26 

1 

1858 

London 

34 

7 

1823 

Foxhunter 

25 

2 

1  859 

Antagonist 

27 

4 

1824 

Lion 

28 

5 

1860 

London 

33 

0 

1825 

Lion 

31 

16 

1861 

London 

29 

22 

182G 

Huntsman 

24 

6 

1862 

Antagonist 

31 

22 

1827 

Lion 

27 

7 

1863 

Antagonist 

34 

2] 

1828 

Lion 

29 

0 

1864 

London 

36 

4 

1829 

Lion 

25 

0 

1865 

London 

33 

12 

1830 

Teazer 

32 

13 

1866 

London 

26 

20 

1831 

Lion 

27 

6 

1867  Seed. 

Rover 

30 

18 

1832  Seed. 

Bumper 

30 

18 

1868 

London 

29 

13 

1833 

Wonderful 

27 

17 

1869 

London 

27 

19 

1834 

Wonderful 

27 

8 

1870 

Ringer 

32 

21 

1835 

Wonderful 

24 

0 

1871 

London 

31 

20 

1836 

Companion 

*JS 

0 

1872 

Garibaldi 

27 

9 

1837 

Companion 

23 

12 

1873 

Garibaldi 

32 

17 

1838 

Wonderful 

30 

16 

1874 

Macaroni 

35 

ID 

1839 

London 

29 

0 

1875 

Bobby 

34 

90 

1840 

London 

32 

0 

1876 

Ringer 

26 

10 

1841 

Wonderful 

32 

16 

1877 

Bobby 

28 

9 

1842 

London 

31 

13 

1878 

Rover 

31 

19 

1843 

London 

32 

0 

1879 

London 

27 

18 

1844 

London 

35 

12 

1880 

Garibaldi 

31 

17 

398 


THE    EVOLUTION     OF     OUR    NATIVE     FRUITS 


The  extent  to  which  the  American  gooseberries 
have  supplanted  the  English  types  in  this  country 
may  be  gleaned  from  the  fact  that  in  1830  a  mention 
is  made  of  a  display  of  gooseberries  before  the  Massa- 


L 


Fig.  100.    Wild  Kibes  Cynosbati.    Nearly  full  si 


chusetts  Horticultural  Society,  in  which  "several  fine 
specimens  of  English  varieties  were  shown,  the  pre- 
mium being  awarded  to  Nathaniel  Seaver  for  the 
Jolly  Angler,  the  largest  of  which  measured  four  and 
a  quarter  inches  in  circumference;"  whereas,  in  1872, 


CURRANT    HISTORY  399 

it  is  recorded  that  "the  prizes  for  gooseberries  were 
awarded  to  the  Downing,  Smith's  Improved,  and 
Houghton's  Seedling,  in  the  order  named.  No  foreign 
gooseberries  were  shown." 

In  recent  years,  however,  the  English  gooseberries 
and  their  American  seedlings  have  come  into  new 
prominence,  because  fungicides  have  been  devised 
which  keep  the  mildew  in  check ;  yet  the  Downing 
is  still  the  standard  variety  in  America,  and  it  gives 
every  promise  of  holding  that  position  until  it  is 
supplanted  by  other  varieties  coming  from  American 
species  or  from  hybrids  with  the  European  species. 

Native    Currants 

Of  many  species  of  wild  currants  in  North  America, 
only  three  seem  to  have  given  varieties  cultivated  for 
fruit,  and  of  these  none  are  important.  The  common 
red  and  white  currants  are  offspring  of  Ribes  rubrmn 
of  the  Old  World ;  and  the  common  black  currants 
are  Ribes  nigrum,  also  of  the  Old  World.  The  former 
species,  Ribes  rnbrum,  or  a  plant  very  closely  like  it, 
is  native  in  cold  swamps  along  the  northern  borders 
of  the  United  States  and  northwards ;  and  if  the 
plant  had  not  already  been  improved  from  the  Euro- 
pean stock,  this  native  plant  might  have  been  pressed 
into  service  before  this.  Fig.  101  is  an  excellent 
illustration  of  this  wild  currant  (on  the  left),  as  com- 
pared with  the  Victoria,  a  common  variety  in  gardens. 
This  wild  currant  usually  bears  its  fruits  near  the  top 
of  the  cane,  whereas  the  garden  currants  are  dis- 
tributed over  the  greater  length  of  the  cane. 

The  three  native  currants  of  which  cultivated  fruit- 


Fig.  101.    Wild  currant  and  the  cultivated  Victoria.    Natural 


THE  CRANDALL  CURRANT  401 

varieties  are  known  are  Ribes  aureum,  R.  Americanum 
(or  R.floridum),  R.  sanguinewn. 

Of   these  varieties,   only  the   Crandall   is    generally 
known,   and   even  this  has   little    commercial   or  even 
domestic      value.       This      is 
Ribes    auretim,     the     species 
generally  known  as  the  buf- 
falo    or     Missouri     currant. 
There     are      a     few      other 
named     fruit-bearing    varie- 
ties   of    this    species, 
but    they    are    mostly 
confined     to     the    dry 
regions   of    the    West. 
The    species    has   also 
been     long    cultivated 
as   the   flowering    cur- 
rant   (Fig.    102).      It 
grows     wild    from     Missouri 
and  Arkansas  westward. 

The  Crandall  currant  was 
named     for     R.    W.     Cran- 
dall,    of     Newton,     Kansas, 
who  found  it   growing  wild. 
It    was    introduced     in     the         Fig.  102.  Flowers  of  buffalo 
spring    of    1888,    by    Frank 
Ford  &  Son,  Ravenna,  Ohio.* 
This    type    or    species    of     currant     undoubtedly    has 
great   promise   as   the   parent   of   a  new  and   valuable 
race   of    small    fruit.     The    Crandall,   however,   is    too 
variable  to  be  reliable.     Comparatively  few  plants  pro- 

*S<-e  Amer.  Qard.  x.  300  (1889);   Bulls.  15  and  51  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.;  Annals 
of  Horticulture  for  1891,  52;  Beach,  Bull.  95,  N.  Y.  State  Exp.  Sta. 


402    THE  EVOLUTION  OF  OUR  NATIVE  FRUITS 

duce  abundantly  of  large  fruits,  while  many  of  them 
bear  fruits  little  larger  than  occasional  plants  of  the 
common  flowering  currant,  to  which  species  the  Cran- 
dall  belongs.  When  the  crop  of  1892,  at  Cornell,  was 
at  its  height,  I  made  a  record  of  the  size  of  fruit  upon 
each  plant,  classifying  it  into  three  categories — poor, 
fairly  good,  and  good.  The  poor  fruit  was  such  as 
appeared  to  be  little  larger  than  the  fruit  of  the  flow- 
ering currant,  or  such  as  is  shown — five -eighths  nat- 
ural size — in  the  lower  spray  in  Fig.  103.  The  good 
fruit  is  represented  in  the  upper  spray  in  the  engraving, 
and  it  ran  from  five-eighths  to  three-fourths  inch  in 
diameter.  The  fairly  good  fruits  were  those  of  in- 
termediate size. 

Only  a  dozen  plants  out  of  fifty,  or  less  than  a 
fourth  of  the  whole  number,  could  be  called  profitable. 
There  is  every  reason  to  expect  that  if  cuttings  were 
taken  from  good  plants  alone,  the  Grandall  currant 
would  soon  rise  in  popular  estimation.  At  its  best, 
the  Crandall  has  decided  merits.  The  fruits  are  large 
and  handsome,  firm,  of  good  culinary  quality,  and  the 
plant  is  thrifty,  hardy  and  productive.  The  fruits  are 
borne  in  very  short  and  open  clusters,  to  be  sure,  but 
they  are  not  picked  by  the  cluster,  like  the  red  and 
white  currants,  but  singly,  like  the  gooseberries.  To 
some  people  the  flavor  of  the  fruit  is  disagreeable,  and 
it  has  been  said  to  have  a  medicinal  flavor;  but  there 
are  others — the  writer  included — who  are  fond  of  them, 
even  to  eat  from  the  hand.  In  pies  and  jellies  we 
have  found  them  to  be  useful.  It  is  not  to  be  ex- 
pected, of  course,  that  these  fruits  will  find  a  ready 
market,  because  consumers  are  not  acquainted  with 
them;  but  if  the  stock  were  more  uniform,  I  think 


BUFFALO    CURRANT 


403 


that  the  Crandall  could  be  recommended  as  a  good 
fruit  for  home  consumption.  Since  there  are  undoubt- 
edly possibilities  before  this  type  of  currant,  the 
introduction  of  the  Crandall  has  been  fortunate.  The 
plant  grows  readily  from  seeds,  and  there  should  be 


Fig.  103.    Good  and  poor  types  of  the  Crandall  currant. 

no    difficulty    ill    rapidly    securing   new   varieties ;     but 
the  seeds  should  be  carefully  selected. 

In  the  dry  Plains  regions,  the  Missouri  currant 
type  has  greater  promise,  not  only  because  it  thrives 
there,  but  because  common  currants  do  not ;  but  the 
varieties  will  need  to  be  much  improved  by  careful 
selection. 


404         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

The  Juneberry 

The  juneberry  grows  in  many  forms  over  a  wide 
range  of  North  America,  particularly  in  the  northern 
parts,  and  several  varieties  have  been  brought  into 
cultivation  from  the  wild.  All  these  varieties  belong 
to  dwarf  species.  They  closely  resemble  large  huckle- 
berries. 

Only  one  of  these  juneberries  has  gained  popu- 
larity. This  is  the  Success  (Fig.  104),  the  history  of 
which,  by  H.  E.  Van  Deman,  the  introducer,  is  thus 
told  in  Annals  of  Horticulture  for  1891:  "In  Decem- 
ber, 1873,  I  was  traveling  on  horseback  from  my  home 
in  Kansas  to  the  annual  meeting  of  the  State  Horti- 
cultural Society,  and  learned  by  accident  of  the  where- 
abouts of  a  fruit,  growing  in  a  man's  garden,  that  was 
called  huckleberry.  On  my  way  home  I  hunted  up 
the  place,  and  found  the  bushes.  I  was  told  that  this 
so-called  huckleberry  bore  abundantly  every  year, 
and  that  it  had  been  brought  from  Illinois  to  that 
neighborhood.  I  afterwards  learned  that  an  old  man 
had  brought  seeds  of  the  dwarf  juneberry  from  the 
mountains  of  Pennsylvania  to  Illinois,  and  from  them 
grew  this  variety.  When  he  and  his  children  went  to 
Kansas,  about  1868,  they  took  along  a  stock  of  the 
plants,  and  part  of  them  were  set  at  the  place  where 
I  found  them.  I  had  no  trouble  in  securing  a  few  of 
the  plants,  which  I  immediately  took  home  and  set 
out,  and  the  next  year,  when  the  bloom  appeared  on 
them,  I  learned  by  consulting  the  botany  that  it  was 
Amelanchier.  The  plants  grew  so  well  that  I  went 
back  the  next  year  and  got  several  hundred  more,  and 
planted  them  at  my  home.  All  of  them  grew,  and  I 


JUNEBERRY 


405 


Fig.  104.    Success  jnneberry.    Two-third 


soon  had  a  large  plantation.  About  this  time  I  found 
other  varieties  of  the  dwarf  juneberry  in  cultivation 
in  different  parts  of  Kansas,  and  got  plants  which 
bore,  and  on  comparing  the  fruit  with  the  one  1  first 


406          THE     EVOLUTION     OP     OUR     NATIVE     FRUITS 

got,  I  thought  the  first  one  the  best ;  and  as  some 
people  discouraged  the  cultivation  of  some  of  the 
varieties  because  of  their  rather  inferior  fruit,  I  named 
my  variety  'Success.'  About  1878  I  began  to  sell  the 
plants  under  the  name  Success,  and  until  I  sold  the 
larger  part  of  my  stock,  some  three  years  ago,  to 
J.  T.  Lovett,  of  New  Jersey,  I  had  sold  more  than 
ten  thousand  plants  of  this  variety." 

This  variety  Success  is  of  the  species  Amelancliier 
Botryapium  of  DeCaudolle  (1825),  also  known  as 
A.  oblongi folia  of  Roemer  (1847).  The  natural  dis- 
tribution of  the  species  is  from  New  Brunswick  to 
Missouri,  although,  like  the  sand  cherry  and  Ameri- 
cana plum,  it  appears  to  give  its  best  fruits  in  its 
western  ranges.  The  western  dwarf  juneberry  (A.  «1- 
tiifolia),  which  extends  eastward  as  far  as  Lake  Supe- 
rior, has  also  given  rise  to  varieties  which  have  been 
named  and  sparingly  introduced  to  cultivation.  The 
fruits  of  the  Success  juneberry  are  attractive  and 
toothsome,  and  the  plants  are  exceedingly  hardy  and 
productive.  Did  not  the  birds  appreciate  the  merits 
of  the  fruits,  they  might  soon  become  popular  in 
gardens. 

The  Buffalo -berry 

The  buffalo -berry  of  the  Plains  (Shepherdia  ar- 
gentea)  has  long  been  known  as  bearing  profusely  of 
excellent  and  variable  acid  berries.  It  was  not  intro- 
duced to  the  horticultural  trades  as  a  fruit -bearing 
plant,  however,  until  the  fall  of  1890,  when  G.  J.  and 
L.  E.  R.  Lambrigger,  of  Big  Horn  City,  Wyoming, 
offered  plants  to  the  general  market.  Since  that  time 
much  has  been  written,  in  a  fragmentary  way,  on  the 


BUFFALO -BERRY  407 

Buffalo -berry,  particularly  in  the  West.  It  is  probable 
that  it  will  never  become  popular  in  the  East,  where 
the  currant,  gooseberry,  and  other  acid  small  fruits 
thrive.  A  Dakotan  writes  as  follows:  "Deer,  ante- 
lope and  elk  live  on  buffalo -berries  through  the  winter, 
but  the  fruit  is  excellent  for  human  beings.  I  do  not 
understand  why  farmers  in  the  Dakotas  and  Minnesota 
do  not  grow  more  of  these  berries.  A  tree  is  of  more 
benefit  than  an  apple  tree,  and  is  a  sure  grower.  The 
time  will  come  when  people  will  say:  'Why  did  we 
not  sooner  know  about  the  buff  alo- berry  ?'  The  trees 
make  good  hedges,  and  live  when  all  other  vegetation 
dies."  Although  introduced  to  cultivation,  the  buffalo- 
berry  has  not  yet  given  any  distinct  named  varieties. 
The  buffalo -berry  is  dkscious — that  is,  the  sexes 
are  on  different  plants.  This  means  that  the  two 
sexes  should  be  known  and  be  planted  close  together 
to  insure  fruitfulness.  Yet,  the  writer  has  a  pistillate 
bush  of  buffalo -berry  which  is  two  hundred  feet 
from  a  staminate  plant,  with  a  large  building 
between  the  two,  and  it  bears  well.  Professor  Corbett 
makes  the  following  remarks  on  the  sex  characters  of 
the  buffalo -berry:* 

With  the  introduction  of  new  fruits  come  new  difficulties 
to  be  overcome  by  both  propagator  and  cultivator.  In  the  brief 
history  of  the  buffalo-berry  we  find  no  exception  to  the  rule, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  added  natural  causes,  which  augment  these 
difficulties.  The  dioecious  nature  of  the  plant  is  not  known  to 
the  majority  of  cultivators,  and,  what  is  the  more  important, 
the  dealers  furnishing  them  the  stock  are  equally  as  ignorant. 
I  know  of  no  dealer  in  nursery  stock  in  the  Northwest,  even  if 
he  is  familiar  with  the  fact  that  they  are  dioecious,  who  claims 

'American  Gardening,  xvi.  45  (Feb.  9.  1895).  The  pictures  (Pl««.  105,  106) 
are  my  own. 


408 


THE  EVOLUTION  OF  OUR  NATIVE  FRUITS 


to  be  able  to  distinguish  between  the  two  sexes,  except  at  the 
fruiting  season.  It  is  not  unusual  to  find  persons  with  a  stock 
of  the  young  plants  upon  the  market  who  are  not  aware  that 
there  are  sterile  and  fertile  plants,  and  that  either  is  worthless 
without  the  other.  Only  last  spring  a  case  of  this  kind  came 


Fig.  105.    Spray  of  pistillate  buffalo-berry. 

under  my  observation.  I  do  not  exaggerate  the  true  condition 
of  affairs  when  I  make  the  statement  that  90  per  cent  of 
all  the  buffalo -berry  stock  placed  upon  the  market  is  gathered 
from  the  native  thickets,  regardless  of  sex,  by  just  such  men. 

Such   being  the   case,    what -is   to   be   expected    in   return? 
Surely  nothing  more  than  we  have  —  denunciation  by  the  unfor- 


CORBETT  ON  BUFFALO -BERRY          409 

tunate  who  have  drawn  blanks,  and  praise  from  the  prize  win- 
ners. This  condition  of  affairs  should  not  exist,  for  with  but 
little  care  and  time  the  plants  could  be  marked  at  blooming 
season  or  while  in  fruit,  and  in  this  way  the  two  sexes  separated 
and  both  obtained.  This  would,  however,  necessitate  two  visits 
to  the  native  source  of  supply  during  the  season,  and  thus  add 
materially  to  the  cost  of  obtaining  a  stock  of  the  plants. 

There  is,  however,  another  and  easier  way  of  distinguishing 
the  staminate  from  the  pistillate  plants — i.  e.,  by  bud  characters 
while  in  a  dormant  condition.  With  care  and  experience  one 
can  readily  separate  the  two.  The  accompanying  illustrations, 
taken  from  typical  specimens  of  the  two  forms,  may  serve  as  a 

basis    for    the    distinction. 

Fig.  105  is  from  a  pistillate     I 

plant,   and  in  general    ap-     j          j/SfflL 

pearance  it  is  more  slender 

and     less    densely    clothed 

with  buds.      The  buds  are 

arranged    in     smaller    and 

less  compact    clusters,   and 


Fig.  l(Xi.    Spray  of  staminate  buffalo-berry. 


the  buds  themselves  are  more  slender,  longer  in  proportion  to 
their  diameter  than  are  the  buds  on  Fig.  106,  which  is  from  a 
staminate  plant.  Upon  this  the  dense  groups  or  clusters  of  the 
round -ended  buds  will  be  noticed.  A  study  of  the  plants  in  the 
field  will  enable  one  to  readily  distinguish  between  them. 

By  observing  these  simple,   yet  apparent,   characteristics  in 


410          THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE     FRUITS 

the  packing-house  or  in  the  field  at  planting  time,  all  the  objec- 
tions urged  against  the  unproductiveness  of  the  buffalo-berry 
under  cultivation  would  be  overcome.  It  is  a  plant  worthy 
of  attention  for  its  ornamental  nature,  and  yet  more  for  its 
valuable  jelly-producing  fruits.  At  present  we  have  it  only  in 
its  native  state,  unimproved  by  cultivation,  yet  we  find  a  red 
and  a  yellow-fruited  variety  well  enough  marked  in  this  one 
character  to  deserve  the  title  of  a  botanical  variety.  Nature 
has  here  begun  what  the  horticulturist  only  needs  to  assist, 
—  variation. 

The  Elderberry 

The  common  elderberry  is  almost  certain  to  become 
the  parent  of  a  race  of  domestic  fruit -bearing  plants. 
Something  has  already  been  done  towards  its  improve- 
ment, by  introducing  good  variations  from  the  wild. 
Professor  Budd  writes  as  follows  in  "Rural  Life," 
March  15,  1894:  "An  Improved  Elderberry.— When 
R.  P.  Speer  was  director  of  the  Iowa  Experiment 
Station  he  planted  out  an  improved  variety  of  the 
elderberry  found  near  Cedar  Falls.  When  loaded 
with  fruit  last  summer,  a  visitor  from  Sioux  county 
remarked,  in  passing  the  bushes  : 

'  'I  never  saw  such  sized  berries  and  clusters  of 
elderberry.  Where  did  it  come  from  ?  Why  don't  you 
send  it  out  ?  On  the  northern  prairies  it  will  be  valu- 
able for  pie  making  ! ' 

"This  variety  really  shows  that  the  elderberry  is 
capable  of  improvement  by  selection.  It  differs  in 
leaf,  habit,  capacity  for  annual  loading  with  fruit,  and 
in  the  size  of  the  berries  and  bunches.  Last  summer, 
too,  we  came  to  the  conclusion  that  it  made  better 
pies  than  the  common  sort.  To  those  who  make  fun 
of  the  idea  of  eating  elderberry  pie,  I  will  merely  say: 


ELDERBERRY 


411 


Pig.  107.    Ford  elderberry,  very  nearly  natural  size. 

'Try  it  before  condemning  it.  With  a  trace  of  cider 
vinegar  or  lemon  juice  it  is  fully  equal  to  the  famous 
huckleberry  pie  of  our  early  days  in  the  eastern 
states.'  " 

"The  elderberry  (8fnnbnrus  Canadensis)  was   intro- 
duced  independently  in    1890   by  Frank    Ford    &   Son 


412         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

(Fig.  107),  and  D.  Brandt,  Bremen,  Ohio.  The  stock 
introduced  by  the  Fords  was  not  named.  Mr.  Ford 
writes  that  he  'did  not . propagate  it  for  sale,  but  dug 
the  roots  from  clumps  that  produced  large  fruit.  We 
sold  very  few  plants,  and  shall  not  catalogue  it  again 
until  we  can  propagate  stock  from  a  few  plants  which 
I  know,  and  which  produce  berries  nearly  one-fourth 
inch  in  diameter.'  The  stock  introduced  by  Brandt 
was  called  the  Brain  ard.  It  was  first  discovered 
in  a  thicket,  in  Fairfield  county,  Ohio,  by  G.  W. 
Brainard."* 

High -bush  Cranberry   (Viburnum  Opulus) 

The  plant  which,  in  the  Old  World,  has  given  rise 
to  the  garden  snowball,  also  produces  very  acceptable 
acid  red  berries.  The  plant  is  native  to  this  country, 
also,  and  in  northern  New  England  and  other  parts  of 
the  northern  states  and  Canada,  the  fruits  are  much 
esteemed  for  sauces.  The  plant  has  been  introduced  to 
the  trade  as  a  fruit-plant,  but  no  varieties  have  re- 
ceived names.  Fig.  108  is  a  picture  of  a  cluster  of 
fruit  from  a  plant  bought  from  a  nurseryman  as  high- 
bush  cranberry. 

The  high -bush  cranberry  is  variable  in  a  wild  state, 
and  it  is  also  so  unlike  the  European  plant  that  bota- 
nists have  long  been  divided  as  to  whether  it  should 
not  receive  a  separate  name.  For  myself,  I  believe 
that  the  plants  of  the  two  continents  should  be  re- 
garded as  distinct  species ;  and  in  that  case  Philip 
Miller's  Viburnum  Americanum  (1768)  should  be  the 
name  of  the  American  plant.  Michaux  (1803)  threw 

*Annals  Hort.  1891,  52. 


HIGH -BUSH     CRANBERRY 


413 


Fig.  U 


Viburnum  Ojiulus.    Nearly  full  size. 


Viburnum  Opulus  into  three  groups  or  varieties, —  V. 
Opulus  var.  Europceanum,  var.  Pimina,  and  var.  edule, 
the  two  last  being  North  American.  Pursh  (in  1814) 
raised  Michaux's  variety  Phnina  into  a  species  under 
the  name  of  \r.  Oxycoccos,  and  liis  variety  edulc  to 
V.  ediile.  Of  V.  Oxycoccos  he  says:  "Berries  red,  of 
an  agreeable  acid,  resembling  that  of  Cranberries,  Vac- 


414    THE  EVOLUTION  OF  OUR  NATIVE  FRUITS 

cinium  tnacrocarpon ,  for  which  they  are  a  very  good 
substitute."  The  plant  grows  on  mountains  of  New 
York  and  New  Jersey.  Viburnum  edule  grows  along 
the  banks  of  rivers  from  "Canada  to  New  York."  He 
describes  it  as  "a  smaller  and  more  upright  shrub  than 
the  preceding  species  ;  berries  the  same  colour  and  size, 
but,  when  completely  ripe,  more  agreeable  .to  eat." 


The   Cranberry 

The  cranberry,  the  most  unique  of  American  horti- 
cultural products,  was  first  cultivated,  or  rescued  from 
mere  wild  bogs,  about  1810.  Its  cultivation  began  to 
attract  attention  about  1840,  although  the  difficulties 
connected  with  the  growing  of  any  new  crop  did  not 
begin  to  clear  away  until  about  1850.  Cape  Cod  was 
the  first  cranberry- growing  region,  which  was  soon 
followed  by  New  Jersey,  and  later  by  Wisconsin  and 
other  regions.  The  varieties  now  known  are  over  a 
hundred,  all  having  been  picked  up  in  bogs,  and  the 
annual  product  from  tame  bogs  in  the  United  States  is 
more  than  eight  hundred  thousand  bushels. 

The  cranberry  industry  is  so  interesting  that  I 
transcribe  an  article  which  I  wrote  on  "Cape  Cod 
Cranberries,"  a  few  years  since  :* 

The  cranberry -growing  sections  of  the  country  are  few  and 
scattered.  The  Cape  Cod  district  is  the  pioneer  ground  of  cran- 
berry culture,  and  it  still  undoubtedly  holds  first  rank  in  general 

*"  American  Garden,"  October,  1890.  This  paper  called  out  an  article  on 
cranberry  growing  in  New  Jersey,  by  John  B.  Smith,  "Garden  and  Forest," 
November  5,  1890.  The  books  specially  devoted  to  the  cranberry  are  :  J.  J. 
White,  "Cranberry  Culture,"  1st  ed.,  1870,  2nd  ed.,  1885  ;  James  Webb,  "Cape 
Cod  Cranberries,"  1886  ;  B.  Eastwood,  "Complete  Manual  for  the  Cultivation  of 
the  Cranberry,"  1856  ;  A.  H.  Richards,  "The  Cranberry  and  its  Culture,"  1870. 


CAPE    COD  415 

reputation.  The  country  in  which  these  Cape  Cod  berries  are 
produced  is  a  most  peculiar  and  interesting  one.  In  fact,  it  is  a 
surprise  to  anyone  not  intimately  acquainted  with  it. 

Let  the  reader  lay  before  him  a  map  of  Massachusetts,  and 
locate  Plymouth  and  Barnstable  counties  upon  its  eastern  ex- 
tremity. Upon  the  south,  Buzzard's  Bay  thrusts  itself  between 
the  two  counties,  and  all  but  cuts  off  the  long  and  low  hook  which 
stretches  eastward  and  northward  to  Cape  Cod.  In  provincial 
parlance,  the  Cape  Cod  region  includes  all  the  peninsular  part  of 
the  state,  beginning  with  the  lower  and  eastward  projection  of 
Plymouth  county.  The  cranberry  region  extends  from  this 
eastern  part  of  Plymouth  county  eastward  to  the  elbow  of  the 
peninsula,  or,  perhaps,  even  farther. 

Upon  one  of  the  upper  arms  of  Buzzard's  Bay  the  reader 
may  locate  the  old  and  quaint  town  of  Wareham.  Here  the  tides 
flow  over  long  marshes  bordering  the  inlet,  and  rise  along  the 
little  river  which  flows  lazily  in  from  the  Plymouth  woods.  Here 
the  sea-coast  vegetation  meets  the  thickets  of  alder  and  bay- 
berry  and  sweet  fern,  with  their  dashes  of  wild  roses  and  vibur- 
nums. And  in  sheltered  ponds  the  sweet  water-lily  grows  with 
rushes  and  pond-weeds  in  the  most  delightful  abandon.  In  the 
warm  and  sandy  glades  two  kinds  of  dwarf  oak  grow  in  profusion, 
bearing  their  multitude  of  acorns  upon  bushes  scarcely  as  high 
as  one's  head.  The  dwarf  chestnut  oak  is  often  laden  with  its 
pretty  fruits  when  only  two  or  three  feet  high,  and  it  is  one  of 
the  prettiest  shrubs  in  our  eastern  flora. 

We  drive  northward  over  the  winding  and  sandy  roads  into 
the  town  of  Carver,  where  the  largest  cranberry  plantations  are 
located.  We  are  now  headed  towards  Plymouth,  and  our  journey 
lies  in  the  "Plymouth  woods."  And  here  the  surprises  begin  ! 
Do  you  look  for  fields  of  corn  and  grass,  and  snug  New  England 
gardens,  and  quaint  old  houses  whose  genealogies  run  into  centu- 
ries? Yes,  you  are  picturing  an  old  and  overworn  country,  from 
which  the  impetuous  youths  have  long  ago  fled  to  the  new  lands 
of  the  West.  But  while  we  are  busy  with  our  expectations,  we 
are  plunging  into  a  wilderness!— not  a  second  growth,  half- 
civilized  forest,  but  a  primitive  waste  of  sand  and  pitch-pine  and 
oaks  I  The  country  has  never  been  cleared,  and  it  is  not  yet 
settled!  And  in  its  wilder  parts  deer  are  still  hunted,  and 


416         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

lesser  game  is  frequent!  And  only  fifty  miles  away  is  the  bus- 
tling hub  of  the  universe! 

This  Cape  Cod  region  is  but  a  part  of  the  sandy  waste  which 
stretches  southward  and  westward  through  Nantucket,  along  the 
north  shore  of  the  Sound  and  throughout  a  large  part  of  Long 
Island ;  and  essentially  the  same  formation  is  continued  along  the 
Jersey  seaboard.  Similarities  of  soil  and  topography  are  always 
well  illustrated  by  the  plants  they  produce.  The  'pine  barren' 
flora  of  New  Jersey  reaches  northward  into  the  Cape  country, 
only  losing  some  of  its  more  southern  types  because  of  the 
shorter  and  severer  seasons.  But  more  diligent  herborizing  will 
no  doubt  reveal  closer  relationship  between  New  Jersey  and  Cape 
Cod  than  we  now  know.  An  instance  in  my  own  experience 
illustrates  this.  The  striped  sedge  (Carex  striata  var.  brevis)  is 
recorded  as  a  rare  plant,  growing  in  pine  barrens  from  New  Jer- 
sey southward,  and  yet  in  these  Plymouth  woods,  in  the  half 
sandy  marshes,  I  found  it  growing  in  profusion.  Even  eastern 
Massachusetts  is  in  need  of  botanical  exploration!  So  the  floras 
run  along  this  coast ;  and  it  is  not  strange  that  Cape  Cod  and  New 
Jersey  are  both  great  cranberry-producing  regions. 

The  country  comprises  an  alternation  of  low,  sandy  eleva- 
tions and  small  swamps  in  which  the  cassandra,  or  leather-leaf, 
and  other  heath-like  plants  thrive.  The  pitch-pine  makes  open 
and  scattered  forests,  or  in  some  parts  oaks  and  birches  and  other 
trees  cover  the  better  reaches.  Fire  has  overrun  the  country  in 
many  places,  leaving  wide  and  open  stretches  carpeted  with  bear- 
berry  (Arctostaphylos)  and  dwarf  blueberries.  There  are  no 
fences,  no  improvements,  except  such  improvised  structures  as 
may  be  seen  now  and  then  about  some  isolated  cranberry  bog. 
At  one  place  we  came  suddenly  upon  a  school  house  of  perhaps 
twelve  by  twenty,  standing  lonely  and  bare  in  the  midst  of  a 
scrub-oak  wilderness,  with  not  a  house  in  sight.  Clear  and  hand- 
some little  lakes  are  found  in  some  parts  of  the  wilderness,  and 
upon  the  banks  of  one  we  found  a  hermitage  where  a  half-dozen 
Boston  men  shut  themselves  off  from  the  world  in  the  summer 
months.  Everywhere  one  finds  clear  and  winding  brooks,  abound- 
ing in  trout.  And  over  all  the  open  glades,  the  great-flowered 
aster  ( Aster  spectabilis)  is  brilliant  in  the  autumn  sun. 

It  is  in  the  occasional  swamps  in  this  sandy  region  that  the 


BLUEBERRIES  AND  CRANBERRIES        417 

cranberry  plantations,  or  "bogs,"  as  they  are  called  in  Massa- 
chusetts, are  made.  In  their  wild  state  these  bogs  look  unprom- 
ising enough,  being  choked  with  bushes  and  brakes.  It  has 
required  considerable  courage  to  attack  and  subdue  them.  I  am 
filled  with  a  constant  wonder  that  the  sandy  plains  are  not  also 
utilized  for  the  cultivation  of  blueberries.  These  fruits  now 
grow  in  abundance  over  large  areas,  and  they  are  gathered  for 
market.  It  would  only  be  necessary  to  enclose  the  areas,  protect 
them  from  fire,  and  remove  the  miscellaneous  vegetation,  to  have 
a  civilized  blueberry  farm.  Certainly  cranberry  and  blueberry 
farms  should  make  an  interesting  and  profitable  combination. 
The  expense  of  growing  the  blueberries  would  be  exceedingly 
slight,  and  the  crop  would  be  off  before  cranberry  picking 
begins.  With  greater  attention  given  to  the  crop,  we  should  no 
doubt  soon  find  out  why  it  is  that  the  berries  fail  in  certain  years, 
and  it  is  possible  that  some  control  could  be  exercised.  I  have 
often  predicted  that  large  areas  of  the  great  pine  plains  of 
Michigan  -  which  look  much  like  the  Massachusetts  barrens — 
will  eventually  be  used  for  the  growing  of  blueberries.  To  be 
sure,  wild  berries  are  yet  common,  but  they  would  not  interfere 
with  the  sale  of  better  and  cleaner  berries  which  should  come 
from  civilized  plantations.  Wild  cranberries  are  still  abundant 
over  thousands  of  acres,  and  the  production  of  cultivated  berries 
is  rapidly  increasing  ;  yet  the  price  has  advanced  from  50  cents 
and  $1  per  bushel,  with  an  uncertain  market,  50  years  ago,  to 
15  and  20  cents  a  quart.  Wild  blackberries  are  still  abundant, 
yet  they  do  not  interfere  with  the  sale  of  cultivated  sorts. 

The  largest  cultivated  bog  in  existence  lies  about  six  miles 
north  of  Wareham,  and  is  under  the  management  of  A.  D.  Make- 
peace, one  of  the  oldest  and  most  experienced  cranberry  -  growers 
in  the  country.  This  bog  is  160  acres  in  extent.  Other  bogs  in 
the  vicinity  belong  to  the  same  management.  These  bogs  are  all 
as  clean  as  the  tidiest  garden.  The  long  and  level  stretches,  like 
a  carpet  strewn  with  white  and  crimson. beads,  are  a  most  pleasing 
and  novel  sight.  Here  in  early  September  a  thousand  pickers 
camp  about  the  swamps,  some  in  temporary  board  cabins,  but 
most  of  them  in  tents.  The  manager  furnishes  the  provisions, 
which  the  campers  cook  for  themselves,  and  he  rents  them  the 
tents.  One  hundred  and  twenty  pickers  constitute  a  "company," 

A  A 


418         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

which  is  placed  in  charge  of  an  overseer,  and  each  company  has  a 
book-keeper.  Each  picker  is  assigned  a  strip  about  three  feet 
wide  across  the  bog,  and  he  is  obliged  to  pick  it  clean  as  he  goes.* 
The  pickers  are  paid  by  the  measure,  which  is  a  broad  six- 
quart  pail  with  ridges  marking  the  quarts.  Ten  cents  is  paid 
for  a  measure.  There  is  wide  variation  in  the  quantity  which  a 
picker  will  gather  in  a  day,  ranging  all  the  way  from  ten  measures 
for  a  slow  picker,  to  forty  and  even  fifty  for  a  rapid  one ;  and  in 
extra  good  picking,  seventy -five  measures  have  been  secured. 

Various  devices  have  been  contrived  for  facilitating  cran- 
berry picking.  The  Cape  Cod  growers  like  the  Lumbert  picker 
best.f  This  is  essentially  a  mouse-trap-like  box  with  a  front  lid 
raising  by  a  spiral  spring.  The  operator  thrusts  the  picker  for- 
ward into  the  vines,  closes  the  lid  by  bearing  down  with  his 
thumb,  and  then  draws  the  implement  backwards  so  as  to  pull  off 
the  berries.  Perhaps  a  fourth  of  the  pickers  use  the  implement. 
Children  are  not  strong  enough  to  handle  it  continuously,  and 
where  the  crop  is  thin  it  possesses  little  advantage.  Baking  off  the 
berries  is  rarely  practiced  in  the  Cape  Cod  region.  It  is  a  rough 
operation,  and  it  tears  the  vfties  badly.  Late  in  fall,  if  picking  has 
been  delayed  and  frost  is  expected  or  pickers  are  scarce,  the  rake 
is  sometimes  used.  An  ordinary  steel  garden  rake  is  employed. 
The  berries  are  raked  off  the  vines,  and  the  bog  may  then  be  flooded 
and  the  berries  are  carried  to  the  flume,  where  they  are  secured. 

This  picking  time  is  a  sort  of  a  long  and  happy  picnic— all 
the  happier  for  being  a  busy  one.  The  pickers  look  forward  to  it 
from  year  to  year.  They  are  invigorated  by  the  change  and  the 
novelty,  and  they  must  come  near  to  nature  in  the  sweet  and 
mellow  October  days.  Those  of  our  readers  who  have  cast  their 
lot  with  hop-pickers,  or  who  have  camped  in  the  clearings  in 
blackberry  time,  or  who  have  joined  the  excursions  to  huckleberry 
swamps,  can  know  something  of  the  cranberry  picker's  experi- 
ences. Yet  I  fancy  that  one  must  actually  pick  the  cran- 
berries in  the  drowsy  Indian  summer  to  know  fully  what 
cranberry -picking  is  like. 

The  berries  must  now  be  sorted  or  "screened."  If  there  are 
no  unsound  berries,  the  fruit  can  be  fairly  well  cleaned  by 

*Fig.  90,     tFig.  83(9),  "Principles  of  Fruit-Growing." 


CRANBERRY 


419 


running  it  through  a  fanning  mill  ;  and  some  growers  find  it  an 
advantage  to  put  all  the  berries  through  the  mill  before  they  go  to 
the  hand  screeners.  A  screen  is  a  slatted  tray  about  six  feet  long 
and  three  and  a  -  half  wide  at  one  end  and  tapering  to  about  ten 
inches  at  the  other,  with  a  side  or  border  five  or  six  inches  high.* 
The  spaces  in  the  bottom  between  the  slats  are  about  one -fourth 
inch  wide.  The  screen  is  set  upon 
saw-horses,  and  three  women  stand 
upon  a  side  and  handle  over  the 
berries,  removing  the  poor  ones  and 
the  leaves  and  sticks,  and  worki 
the  good  ones  towards  the 
small  and  open  end,  where 

Fig.  109. 
Early  Black. 


they  fall  into  a  re- 
ceptacle. The  berries 
are  barreled  directly  if 
they  are  not  moist,  but 
if  wet  they  are  first 
spread  upon  sheets  of 
canvas — old  sails  being 
favorites — and  allowed 
to  remain  until  thor- 
oughly dry. 

The  cultivated  cranberry  is  a  native 
of  our  northern  states.  It  was  first  cul- 
tivated about  1810,  but  its  culture  had 
not  become  general  until  forty  or  fifty 
years  later.  The  berries  naturally  vary  in  size  and  shape  and 
color,  and  three  general  types,  named  in  reference  to  their 
forms,  were  early  distinguished— the  Bell,  the  Bugle  and  the 
Cherry.  These  types  are  represented  in  Figs.  109  to  111,  respec- 
tively. As  late  as  1856  there  appears  to  be  no  record  of  any  partic- 
ular named  varieties  aside  from  these  general  types.  But  there 

*Shown  in  Fig.  105,  «  Principles  of  Fruit-Growing." 


420         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 


are  many  named  sorts  in  cultivation  now.  These  have  been 
multiplied  from  some  superior  or  distinct  plant  which  some- 
one has  observed  and  marked.  Mr.  Makepeace  showed  me  seven 
varieties  in  his  largest  bog. 
The  common  favorite  is 
the  Early  Black,  shown  nat- 
ural size  in  Fig.  109.  This 


is  valuable  because  of  its 
earliness,  as  it  comes  in 
three  weeks  ahead  of  the 
medium  sorts.  Picking  be- 
gins upon  this  variety  about 
the  first  of  September  in  the 
Cape  Cod  bogs.  When  fully 
ripe,  the  berries  are  purple- 
black,  and  for  this  reason  they  are  favorites  with  consumers, 
for  it  is  a  common  though  erroneous  notion  that  pale  berries 
are  unripe.  In  late  fall,  the  foliage  of  the  Early  Black  assumes 
a  purplish  tinge,  which  readily  distinguishes  it  from  most  other 
varieties. 

The  Dennis,  a  bugle  berry  (Fig.  110),  is  also  a  favorite 
because  of  its  good  size,  productiveness  and  bright  scarlet  color. 
The  fruit  is  picked  late  in  September  and  early  in  October.  The 
foliage  is  darker  than  that  of  the  Early  Ked. 

The  McFarlin,  an  oval,  dark  red  berry,  is  probably  the 
largest  late  berry  grown. 

The  Gould  (named  for  Dr.  Gould,  of  Cape  Cod)  is  a  produc- 
tive pear  berry,  of  medium  season,  with  a  bright  purple  fruit  and 
light  colored  foliage. 

Lewis  is  probably  the  most  brilliantly  colored  of  the  cran- 
berries. It  is  a  very  bright,  glossy  scarlet,  medium  in  season, 
and  pear-like  in  shape. 

Franklin  is  a  comparatively  new  pear  sort,  as  late  as  Dennis, 


KINDS    OP    CRANBERRY 


421 


purple-red,  with  a   high    habit  of    growth.     It   appears   to   have 
little  to  recommend  it  above  older  sorts. 

A  new  berry  which  Mr.  Makepeace  showed  me  appears  to 
combine  more  merits  than  any  berry  which  I  have  ever  seen. 
Some  twelve  years  ago  he  observed  the  original  plants  in  a 
neighbor's  bog,  occupying  a  space  about  six  feet  square,  and  he 
procured  a  few  cuttings.  The  small  bog  which  he  now  has  of  it 
is  well  worth  a  journey  to  see.  The  berries  are  unusually  large, 
cherry -shaped,  a  little  later  than  Early  Black,  and  a  bright  rose- 


Fig.  111.    Makepeace. 


purple.  It  is  probably  the  largest  early  berry.  It  is  shown 
natural  size  in  Fig.  111.  I  take  pleasure  in  calling  it  the 
Makepeace. 

It  is  an  arduous  labor  to  subdue   a  wild    bog.     The   bushes 
and  trees  must  be  removed,  roots  and  all,  and  it  is  usually  nee- 


422         THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

essary  to  remove  the  upper  foot  or  so  of  the  surface  in  order  to 
get  rid  of  the  roots,  bushes  and  undecayed  accumulations.  This 
process  is  termed  "turfing."  The  turf  is  commonly  cut  into 
-small  squares  and  hauled  off.  It  is  necessary  to  leave  the  surface 
level  and  even,  in  order  that  all  the  plants  may  have  an  equal 
chance  and  thereby  make  an  even  and  continuous  bed,  and  to 
avoid  inequalities  in  flooding.  Although  the  cranberry  thrives  in 
swamps  and  endures  flooding  at  certain  seasons,  it  nevertheless 
demands  comparative  dryness  during  the  growing  and  fruiting 
season.  The  swamp  must,  therefore,  be  drained.  Open  ditches 
are  cut  at  intervals  of  four  or  five  rods,  about  two  feet  deep,  and 
these  lead  into  the  main  or  flooding  ditch.  It  is  also  often  neces- 
sary to  run  a  ditch  around  the  outside  of  the  bog  to  catch  the 
wash  from  the  banks.  The  areas  enclosed  within  the  intersections 
of  the  ditches  are  called  sections,  and  each  section  is  commonly 
planted  to  a  single  variety.  The  main  ditch  is  usually  a  straight- 
ened creek,  or  it  carries  the  overflow  from  a  reservoir  which  may 
be  built  for  the  purpose  of  affording  water  to  flood  the  bog. 
Growers  always  divert  a  creek  through  the  bog  if  possible.  In 
the  Cape  Cod  districts  these  creeks  are  often  clear  trout  brooks. 
The  main  ditch  is  strongly  dammed  to  allow  of  flooding. 

Before  planting  is  done,  the  bog  is  sanded.  This  operation 
consists  in  covering  the  whole  surface  with  about  four  inches  of 
clean  and  coarse  sand,  free  from  roots  and  weeds.  The  chief 
object  of  sanding  is  to  prevent  too  rapid  growth  and  consequent 
unproductiveness  of  vines.  In  wild  bogs,  the  cranberry  rarely 
roots  deeply  in  the  muck,  but  subsists  rather  in  the  loose  sphag- 
num moss.  Vines  that  grow  in  pure  muck  rarely  produce  well. 

The  sand  also  serves  as  a  mulch  to  the  muck,  mitigating 
extremes  of  drought  and  moisture.  It  also  prevents  the  heaving 
of  the  vines  in  winter,  and  it  aids  in  subduing  weeds.  Every 
four  or  five  years  after  the  bog  begins  to  bear  it  is  necessary  to 
re-sand  it,  in  order  to  maintain  productiveness.  These  subsequent 
applications  are  light,  however,  seldom  more  than  a  half  inch  in 
depth.  The  Cape  Cod  bogs  are  fortunate  in  their  proximity  to 
the  sand. 

It  was  once  the  practice  to  plant  cranberry  vines  in  "sods," 
or  clumps,  just  as  they  are  dug  from  the  swamps.  There  are 
several  vital  objections  to  this  operation,  and  it  is  now  given 


CRANBERRY    CULTIVATION  423 

up.  It  is  expensive,  the  vines  are  apt  to  be  old  and  stunted,  an 
even  "stand"  can  rarely  be  secured,  and  many  pernicious  weeds 
and  bushes  are  introduced.  Cuttings  are  now  used  exclusively. 
These  are  made  from  vigorous  runners,  and  are  six  or  eight, 
inches  in  length.  They  are  thrust  obliquely  through  the  sand, 
about  an  inch  and  a  half  or  two  inches  of  the  tip  being  allowed 
to  project.  They  are  set  in  early  spring,  about  fourteen  inches 
apart  each  way.  In  two  or  three  weeks  they  begin  to  grow,  and 
in  three  or  four  years  a  full  crop  is  obtained.  The  subsequent 
cultivation  consists  in  keeping  the  bog  clean.  A  small  force  is 
employed  during  the  summer  months  in  pulling  weeds.  Under 
ordinary  conditions  it  costs  from  $300  to  $500  per  acre  to  fit  and 
plant  a  bog. 

Opinions  vary  as  to  the  best  times  and  frequency  of  flood- 
ing. There  are  those  who  contend  that  flooding  is  not  necessary, 
and  it  is  a  fact  that  there  are  some  "dry  bogs"  which  are  suc- 
cessful. It  is  no  doubt  true  that  the  value  of  flooding  varies 
with  conditions.  It  appears  to  be  generally  held  that  bogs  are 
longer  lived  and  more  productive  if  judiciously  flooded,  and  it 
is  certainly  true  that  flooding  is  often  the  very  best  remedy  for 
insect  attacks.  The  reasons  for  flooding,  so  far  as  I  know,  are 
five  :  ( 1 )  To  protect  the  plants  from  heaving  in  the  winter  ; 
(2)  to  avoid  late  spring  and  early  fall  frosts  ;  (3)  to  drown  out 
insects  ;  (4)  to  protect  from  drought  ;  (5)  to  guard  against  fire, 
which  sometimes  works  sad  havoc  in  the  muck.  Mr.  Makepeace 
prefers  to  flood  but  once  a  year,  unless  insects  appear  in  serious 
numbers.  He  lets  on  the  water  in  December  and  draws  it  off 
in  April  or  early  in  May.  Just  enough  water  is  used  to  com- 
pletely cover  the  vines  in  all  parts  of  the  bog. 

There  are  many  hindrances  to  cranberry-growing.  The 
chief  are  spring  and  fall  frosts,  hail,  numerous  insects  and  some 
fungous  diseases.  During  the  summer  season  the  bogs  are  not 
flooded,  and  insects  must  be  kept  in  check  by  insecticides. 
Tobacco  water  is  commonly  used.  The  liquid  is  applied  with 
hand-pumps  from  the  middle  of  May  to  late  in  June.  It  is 
supposed  that  it  has  some  value  as  a  fertilizer  also. 

Fifty  barrels  per  acre  is  a  good  crop  of  cranberries,  yet  200 
barrels  have  been  produced.  The  grower  usually  gets  from  $5 
to  $10  per  barrel  of  100  quarts.  It  does  not  appear  to  be  known 


424  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

how  long  a  well-handled  bog  will  continue  to  be  profitable,  but 
Mr.  Makepeace  assures  me  that  he  knows  a  bog  thirty  years 
old  which  is  still  in  good  condition. 

This  cultivated  cranberry  is  Vaccinium  macrocarpon. 
There  are  other  edible  species,  but  they  are  not  culti- 
vated. The  cowberry,  or  mountain  cranberry,  Vaccin- 
ium Vitis-Idcea,  is  gathered  in  great  quantities  in 
Canada,  where  it  is  used  for  sauces  (page  388).  It  is 
also  native  to  Europe,  where  it  is  also  much  prized  as 
a  culinary  fruit. 

The   Strawberry 

Wild  strawberries  are  among  the  commonest  and 
most  esteemed  of  American  fruits.  They  run  into 
many  forms,  into  so  many,  in  fact,  that  botanists 
cannot  agree  as  to  what  are  varieties  and  what  are 
species.  From  the  earliest  times,  the  native  straw- 
berries have  been  transferred  to  gardens,  and  at  one 
time  considerable  progress  had  been  made  in  their 
amelioration.  Of  some  of  this  early  history  in  New 
England,  Stone  writes  as  follows:* 

It  is  well  known  that  this  fruit  has  been  cultivated  for  cen- 
turies in  the  Old  World,  but  some  misconception  seems  to  exist 
in  regard  to  the  date  of  the  cultivation  of  the  strawberry  in  New 
England,  as  well  as  to  its  abundance  in  early  times.  In  the  last 
report  of  the  Connecticut  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  page  66,  a 
member  stated  that  he  could  not  find  that  the  strawberry  was 
cultivated  here  in  gardens  previous  to  1824.  Dr.  Timothy 
Dwight,  in  his  delightful  volumes  of  "Travels  in  New  England," 
published  in  1821,  though  written  earlier  than  1817,  gives  a  list 
of  five  different  varieties  of  strawberries,  four  of  which  he  had 
under  cultivation  in  his  garden.  He  mentions  the  following 

*ti.  E.  Stone,  "The  Strawberry  in  New  England,"  Garden  and  Forest,  Feb. 
26,  1896. 


WILD  STRAWBERRIES  425 

varieties:  The  Red  Meadow,  White  Meadow,  Field,  Hudson  and 
Hautboy.  Dr.  Dwight  says:  "The  Meadow  strawberry  of  this 
country  is  the  best  fruit  of  the  kind  which  I  have  seen.  It  is 
rather  larger  than  the  Chili  Sweet,  and  more  prolific.  It  also 
improves  greatly  by  culture.  I  have  seen  several  which  were 
four  and  a  half  inches  in  circumference,  many  which  were  four, 
and  bushels  which  were  between  three  and  four."  And  he  futher 
states:  "I  have  cultivated  the  Wild  Meadow  strawberry  more 
than  twenty  years,  and  during  that  time  it  has  increased  to 
twice  its  original  size." 

In  regard  to  the  Field  strawberry,  he  says  that  it  "is 
sweeter,  ten  days  earlier,  but  much  smaller  than  the  Meadow 
strawberry,  and  has  not  increased  in  size  by  a  cultivation  of 
eight  years  in  my  garden.  The  plants  become  immediately  much 
larger,  but  the  fruit  has  not  been  changed  at  all."  He  also 
mentions  the  Hautboy  and  Hudson  varieties  as  having  been  in 
cultivation  for  many  years  in  his  garden.  The  former  variety  is 
a  well-known  European  form;  the  latter  is  a  form  I  am  not 
familiar  with,  although  I  suspect  it  to  be  an  old  cultivated 
variety  common  in  these  days.  These  statements  of  Dr.  Dwight, 
who  died  in  1817,  show  that  the  strawberry  was  in  cultivation  in 
New  England  before  the  beginning  of  this  century. 

He,  moreover,  states  that  the  Hautboy  strawberrry,  Fragaria 
elatior,  has  been  found  growing  spontaneously  in  two  distinct 
and  remote  localities  in  Connecticut.  This  statement,  if  true, 
would  undoubtedly  indicate  that  they  were  introduced  through 
the  agency  of  birds.* 

The  White  Meadow  strawberry  which  he  calls  attention  to 
is  a  mere  sport  or  variety  of  the  ordinary  Ked  strawberry.  It  is 
also  mentioned  by  Dr.  Dewey,  in  his  "Plants  of  Massachusetts," 
1840,  page  59,  as  occurring  plentifully  in  the  Berkshire  Hills. 

In  regard  to  the  abundance  of  the  strawberry  in  early  times, 
there  appears  to  be  some  misconception  also.  Every  one  is 
aware  that  there  are  few  places  in  Massachusetts  where  it  would 
be  possible  now  for  one  to  gather  more  than  a  few  pints  of 
strawberries  in  a  whole  day.  In  early  times,  however,  when 
there  was  more  virgin  soil  than  there  is  to-day  in  New  England, 

*The  native  wild  Fragaria  vesea  Cor  F.  Americana)  was  probably  confounded 
with  the  European  Hautbois.—  !„.  II.  I'.. 


426         THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

the  wild  strawberry  was  very  abundant,  and  frequently  grew  to 
a  much  larger  size  than  at  present;  and  even  within  the  recol- 
lection of  men  now  living,  this  fruit  was  by  no  means  rare  in 
this  state,  neither  is  it  in  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick 
to-day.  William  Wood,  an  early  visitor  and  accurate  observer, 
states  in  his  "New  England  Prospect,"  published  in  1635,  that 
"there  is,  likewise,  growing  all  manner  of  Hearbes  for  meate 
and  medicin,  and  that  not  onely  in  planted  Gardens,  but  in  the 
woods,  without  either  the  art  or  helpe  of  man.  *  *  *  There 
is,  likewise,  Strawberies  in  abundance,  verie  large  ones,  some 
being  two  inches  about;  one  may  gather  halfe  a  bushell  in  afore- 
noone  "  [p  .386].  And  in  1643  Eoger  Williams  wrote :  "  This  berry 
[Strawberry]  is  the  wonder  of  all  the  fruits  growing  naturally 
in  those  parts;  it  is  of  itself  excellent,  so  that  one  of  the 
cheiftest  doctors  of  England  was  wont  to  say  that  God  could 
have  made,  but  never  did,  a  better  berry.  *  *  *  In  some 
parts,  where  the  natives  have  planted,  I  have  many  times  seen 
as  many  as  would  fill  a  good  ship  within  a  few  miles'  compasse. 
The  Indians  bruise  them  in  a  mottar  and  mixe  them  with  meale 
and  make  Strawberry  bread."  Strawberry  bread  appears  to  have 
been  in  common  use  among  the  Indians,  as  we  find  it  mentioned 
by  other  writers,  notably  Gorkin,  who  was  a  co-worker  with  Eev. 
John  Eliot  among  the  Nipmucks  and  other  Massachusetts  tribes. 
These  statements,  with  many  others  which  could  be  cited,  show 
conclusively  that  the  wild  strawberry  was  once  very  abundant 
here  in  New  England,  and  undoubtedly  the  principal  reason  for 
the  decline  of  this  wild  fruit  is  the  exhausted  conditions  of  our 
soil.  In  early  times  the  clearing  of  an  old  wood  gave  rise  to 
abundance  of  these  berries,  and  they  were  noted  as  being 
abundant  in  our  meadows.  The  strawberry,  however,  is  not 
the  only  natural  crop  that  has  changed.  Many  of  our  meadows, 
which  now  produce  a  crop  of  grass  hardly  worth  cutting,  once 
supported  a  luxuriant  growth  of  the  fowl  meadow  grass,  "thick 
and  long,  as  high  as  a  man's  middle,  some  as  high  as  the 
shoulders,  so  that  a  good  mower  might  cut  three  load  a  day." 
To-day,  however,  hardly  less  should  be  expected,  since  for 
generations  crops  have  been  removed  from  the  soil  without  the 
return  of  any  plant-food,  whereas  in  olden  time,  before  the 
advent  of  the  white  man,  everything  was  allowed  to  decay 


STRAWBERRY    TYPES 


427 


where    it   fell,   which   meant    a    considerable   yearly  increase    of 
organic  matter  to  the  soil. 

The  advent  of  the   Chilian  strawberry  in  European 
and   American   gardens,    and    its    phenomenally   rapid 


Fig.  112.    Common  wild  or  Virginian  strawberry. 

amelioration,  obscured  the  native  species,  however, 
and  the  latter  are  now  practically  out  of  cultivation. 
Now  and  then  some  evidence  of  native  blood  can  be 
seen  in  an  early  variety,  but  the  influence  of  our 


428    THE  EVOLUTION  OF  OUR  NATIVE  FRUITS 

field   strawberry   in   the    improvement    of    the    garden 
varieties  has  evidently  been  very  small. 

A  full  discussion  of  this  strawberry  evolution  is 
made  in  Essay  XXV.,  "Survival  of  the  Unlike,"  and  it 
is,  therefore,  unnecessary  to  pursue  the  subject  here. 

/• 


Fig.  113.    Plant  of  the  common  wild  strawberry,  showing  how 
the  runners  form  before  the  fruit  is  matured. 

It  may  be  said,  however,  that  there  are  three  leading 
groups  or  types  of  strawberries  native  to  North  Amer- 
ica,—  the  Scarlet  or  Virginian  group,  the  Vesca  or  Old 


VIRGINIAN     OR    SCARLET    STRAWBERRY  429 

World   group,  and  the  Chilian  or  Pacific  group.     All 
these  groups  are  perplexiugly  variable. 

The  Virginian  strawberry  is  the  common  field  and 
meadow  strawberry  of  the  eastern  states.  It  has 
received  many  names  from  botanists, 
the  oldest  being  Fragaria  Virgin  iana 
of  Duchesne  (1766).  Its  features  are 
clearly  depicted  in  Figs.  112,  113  and 
114,— the  bluntish- toothed,  thickish 
leaflets  overtopping  the  flowers,  the 
small  drooping -rayed  fruit  truss,  and 
the  globular -pitted  berry.  On  moun-  Fig.  114.  Fruit  of 
tains  and  along  our  northern  borders  ^^TJ^' 
and  in  Canada,  the  plant  becomes 
squat,  and  this  form  was  called  Fragaria  Canadensis 
by  Michaux.  I  have  seen  Michaux's  specimens  in  his 
herbarium  at  Paris  (from  Lake  Mistassinica) ,  and  they 
look  distinct  enough  from  the  field  strawberry  of  lower 
latitudes  and  altitudes  ;  but  it  is  doubtful  if  it  is  worth 
while  to  keep  them  apart  as  distinct  species.  William 
R.  Prince,  the  Long  Island  nurseryman,  proposed  two 
large  prairie  forms  of  the  strawberry  as  distinct  spe- 
cies in  1862  (Proc.  Amer.  Pom.  Soc.  viii.  206),  naming 
them  Fragaria  lowensis  and  F.  Illinoensis.  The  latter 
name  has  since  been  used  for  the  larger-growing  forms 
of  the  species,  as  Frayaria  Virghnatia  var.  lU'ni<n')txix. 

The  native  strawberry  of  Europe  is  characterized  by 
thin,  light  green,  and  sharp-toothed  leaflets,  which  are 
overtopped  by  the  flowers,  by 'a  small  and  weak  truss, 
and  a  more  or  less  elongated  berry  with  the  seeds  not 
imbedded  in  the  flesh.  This  type  of  strawberry  is  also 
common  in  the  northernmost  states  and  Canada,  and 
throughout  our  mountain  systems.  There  is  some 


430         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

doubt  as  to  whether  the  American  plant  is  closely 
enough  like  the  European  to  warrant  one  in  calling  it 
the  same  species.  Until  very  recent  years  it  has  been 
known  by  the  name  of  the  European  plant,  Fragaria 


Fig.  115.    Fruit  of 
Fragaria  America 
Natural  size. 


Fig.  11C. 
Fragaria  Americana. 


vesca,  but  Professor  Porter  now  proposes  to  call  it 
Fragaria  Americana.  The  Cordilleran  form  of  it  has 
been  known  as  Fragaria  Mexicana.  The  characters  of 
the  plant  are  well  shown  in  Figs.  115  and  116.  There 
are  white-fruited  forms.  Fragaria  Americana  has  never 
been  ameliorated  by  the  plant -breeder,  and  it  has  less 


THE    STRAWBERRIES 


Fig.  117.     Fragaria  Chiloensis  from  Oregon,  after  having  been  grown  one 
year  in  New  York.    The  runners  form  mostly  after  the  fruit  is  gone. 

promise  than  the  other  types  of  native  strawberries.* 

The  Chilian  strawberry  (Fragaria  Chiloensis),  from 
which  the  garden  berries  have  come,  is  also  native  to 
the  Pacific  coast  region  of  North  America ;  and  outly- 

*Fragaria  bracteata  is  a  New  Mexican  species  described  by  A.  Heller  since 
this  book  went  to  press  (Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club,  xxv.  194).  It  is  also  reported 
from  Idaho.  It  is  allied  to  F.  Americana. 


432         THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 


Fig.  118.    Truss  of  Fragaria  Chiloensis. 


ing  forms  of  this  type  are  known  as  Fragaria  Callfor- 
nica  and  F.  ylauca.  Figs.  117  and  118  show  some  of 
its  characteristics,—  the  thick,  blunt-toothed  leaflets, 
low  fruit  -clusters  with  sprawling  -rayed  trusses,  and 
conical  -pitted  berries.  It  is  possible  that  useful 
varieties  may  be  obtained  from  this  North  American 
Chiloensis  group,  although  the  garden  progeny  of  its 
South  American  branch  is  already  so  good  that  there  is 
little  reason  for  returning  to  the  wild  for  a  new  start. 


VIII 

VARIOUS    TYPES    OF    TREE    FRUITS 

THERE  are  great  numbers  of  trees  in  North  America, 
small  and  large,  which  produce  edible  fruit,  some  of 
which  must  come  to  be  'the  parents  of  important  fruit- 
bearing  races.  Of  a  few  of  these,  something  has 
already  been  done  towards  domestication ;  and  the 
most  important  of  these  may  be  mentioned. 

The,   Persimmon 

We  have  already  seen  (page  172)  that  the  wild 
persimmons  attracted  the  attention  of  the  explorers 
and  colonists,  by  many  of  whom  they  were  called 
plums.  Over  a  hundred  years  ago,  experiments  were 
detailed  for  the  utilization  of  this  fruit  in  the  making 
of  wine,*  and  the  fruit  is  still  employed  in  parts  of 
the  South  in  the  manufacture  of  domestic  liquors. 
Perhaps  there  is  no  native  fruit  which  is  more  varia- 
ble than  the  persimmon.  It  is  not  improbable  that 
more  than  one  species  is  passing  under  the  name  of 
Diositijros  Viryiniana.  This  at  once  argues  that  the 
persimmon  is  capable  of  rapid  amelioration.  Several 
extra  good  forms  have  been  transferred  to  cultiv.-it.'.l 
grounds  and  have  received  names.  Troop  and  Had- 
ley's  bulletin,!  which  is  the  best  literature  yet  made 

*  Isaac  Bartram,  "A  memoir  on  the  distillation  of  persimmons."  in  Trans. 
Amer.  Phil.  Soc.  i.  301  (1789). 

t  "Tli.-  American   Persimmon,"  Bull.  60,  Indiana  Exp.  Sta.  (Apr.  l«Mi). 

BB  (433) 


434         THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

on  the  subject,  describes  eight  of  these  varieties,— 
Shoto,  Early  Bearing,  Golden  Gem,  Daniel  Boone, 
Hicks,  Kansas,  Sraeech,  Early  Golden.  These  writers 
speak  as  follows  of  the  prospective  merits  of  the 
species  : 

The  native  persimmon,  or  date  plum,  is  one  of  our  neglected 
wild  fruits  which  has  heretofore  received  but  little  attention 
from  the  fruit-growers  of  this  country,  although  it  possesses 
many  desirable  qualities  which,  when  brought  to  a  higher  state 
of  perfection  by  selection  and  cross-fertilization,  will  certainly 
cause  it  to  be  more  highly  appreciated  by  all  lovers  of  good 
fruit.  But  little  literature  is  to  be  found  on  the  subject,  and  so 
the  general  public  is  quite  ignorant  concerning  its  real  merits. 
The  fruit  is  scarcely  known  except  by  those  who  live  in  sections 
of  the  country  where  it  grows  wild,  and  even  in  these  localities, 
but  little  attention  has  been  given  to  its  cultivation. 

From  recent  personal  investigations,  we  have  found  the  per- 
simmon growing  wild  in  many  portions  of  the  southern  half  of 
this  state,  and  producing,  in  some  instances,  a  fruit  of  excellent 
quality  and  in  great  abundance  ;  and  yet  so  little  attention  is 
given  to  it  by  the  farmers  in  these  localities  that  hundreds  of 
bushels  of  fruit  are  annually  allowed  to  waste  on  the  ground. 
There  are  various  reasons  why  this  fruit  has  been  hitherto 
neglected.  One  is  the  exceedingly  astringent  or  puckery  prin- 
ciple which  the  green  fruit  contains,  and  which  remains  with 
most  wild  varieties  until  thoroughly  ripe,  some  never  losing  it 
entirely.  Again,  in  most  instances,  where  cultivation  has  been 
attempted,  suckers  or  seedlings  have  been  used  for  planting, 
and  these  generally  die,  or  if  they  live,  produce  inferior  fruit, 
or  prove  to  be  sterile.  Another  discouraging  feature  was  that  it 
required  a  long  time  for  the  trees  to  come  into  bearing.  But  a 
new  condition  of  things  is  being  brought  about,  so  that  these 
difficulties  will  soon  be  largely  removed.  New  methods  of  propa- 
gation and  cultivation  are  being  introduced  in  its  culture,  so 
that  now  trees  frequently  begin  bearing  at  from  three  to  five 
years  from  the  bud  or  graft,  and  we  believe  that  this  fruit  is 
capable  of  being  improved  to  such  an  extent  as  to  make  it 
equal  to  that  of  some  of  the  Japanese  varieties. 


THE    PERSIMMON  435 

Until  recently  there  were  no  well  defined  varieties  under 
cultivation.  We  have  found,  however,  many  well-marked  varie- 
ties growing  wild.  They  differ  in  quality  as  much  as  our  culti- 
vated apples.  Some  are  very  astringent,  others  are  insipid  and 
worthless,  while  still  others  are  sweet  and  delicious.  Almost 
every  tree  is  a  variety  of  itself,  as  the  persimmon,  like  the 
apple,  does  not  reproduce  itself  from  seed  with  certainty.  In 
the  wild  state  it  is  sometimes  found  growing  in  clusters  of  ten 
or  a  dozen  trees,  and  all  apparently  of  the  same  variety, 
but  these  probably  came  from  the  roots  of  the  original  or  parent 
tree.  The  fruit  differs  in  size  from  that  of  a  small  wild  plum 
to  that  of  the  large  cultivated  kinds,  an  inch  and  a -half  to  two 
inches  in  diameter.  They  also  vary  greatly  in  form  :  some  are 
globular,  others  either  conical  or  oblong,  those  of  the  globular 
form  predominating. 

The  persimmon  is  readily  propagated  from  seeds,  whicli 
should  be  procured  in  the  fall  or  early  winter,  and  planted  in 
the  same  manner  as  peach  pits.  The  young  seedlings  will  often 
attain  a  height  of  over  two  feet  the  first  season.  These  seed- 
lings, especially  from  cultivated  varieties,  cannot  be  depended 
upon  to  reproduce  themselves.  In  fact,  this  fruit  varies  greatly 
in  the  wild  state.  Twenty  trees  raised  from  the  seeds  of  one 
parent  tree  may  produce  twenty  distinct  varieties  ;  we  must 
therefore  resort  to  budding  or  grafting  the  young  stocks  with 
buds  or  cions  from  the  variety  which  we  desire  to  propagate. 
A  desirable  seedling  variety  may  be  multiplied  by  breaking  up 
the  roots  of  the  parent  tree,  thus  causing  it  to  throw  up  sprouts 
or  suckers.  These,  however,  are  difficult  to  transplant  success- 
fully, owing  to  a  deficiency  of  root  development. 

The  following  extracts  from  a  letter  from  Eli  H. 
Chandler,  Marietta,  Ga.,  show  how  variable  the 
persimmon  is : 

In  northern  Delaware  some  thirty  years  :igo  were  two  trees 
(the  only  ones  in  the  neighborhood)  whose  fruit  myself  ami 
brothers  highly  esteemed.  Six  miles  from  there  was  a  grove  of 
persimmon  trees  equally  desirable  from  a  fruit  standpoint,  and  I 
knew  of  a  very  few  isolated  trees  in  Chester  and  Delaware 
counties,  Pennsylvania.  On  none  of  these  trees  was  the  fruit 


436         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE     FRUITS 

ripe  until  after  very  heavy  frosts,  and  we  usually  gathered  it 
after  the  first  snow  storm.  The  trees  bore  biennially,  and  were 
at  least  eight  to  ten  years  old  before  they  came  into  bearing. 

In  eastern  Kansas  ( Wyandotte  and  Bourbon  counties,  par- 
ticularly), and  generally  in  western  Missouri,  I  have  gathered  an 
abundance  of  good  persimmons,  always  after  heavy  frosts.  The 
trees  in  that  section  bore  at  an  earlier  age  than  in  the  East,  but 
otherwise  I  could  see  no  difference  between  the  fruits  of  those 
and  the  eastern  trees,  except  that  the  eastern  trees  were  on 
uplands,  and  those  in  the  West  mostly  on  low  lands. 

Here,  in  Georgia,  the  conditions  are  different.  The  trees  grow 
everywhere,  bear  immense  crops  biennially,  and  ripen  from  Sep- 
tember 1  to  February  1 ;  that  is,  we  have  trees  whose  fruits  ripen 
early,  and  others  that  are  not  fit  to  eat  until  after  frost ;  some  not 
good  at  all.  I  ate  my  first  persimmons  this  season  September  1, 
and  three  weeks  afterwards  the  fruit  on  that  tree  was  all  gone. 
I  had  very  fair  persimmons  January  15,  from  trees  whose  fruits 
were  unfit  to  eat  December  15.  I  know  of  three  small  trees  (in 
a  clump)  some  fifty  miles  from  here,  whose  earliest  fruits  ripen 
in  October,  and  the  latest  can  be  kept  until  December  20.  The 
fruits  are  as  large  as  a  small  Mandarin  orange,  three  to  five  seeds, 
sweet,  melting  and  juicy,  no  pungency  whatever,  and  comparable 
in  lusciousness  with  a  ripe  Seckel  pear.  I  have  hunted  over  hun- 
dreds of  square  miles  and  examined  thousands  of  persimmon 
trees,  but  have  never  found  the  equal  of  these  fruits  for  size,  early 
and  continuous  ripening  and  lusciousness,  nor  have  I  seen 
anything  anywhere  to  compare  with  them  in  size,  and  only  one 
tree  whose  fruits  are  as  fine-flavored.  I  esteem  them  more 
highly  than  the  Japanese  persimmon  as  it  is  produced  here. 
They  are  superior  in  every  way  except  in  size. 

What'  we  call  (in  the  family)  the  "  premium  tree"  is  growing 
about  three  miles  from  here,  and  we  have  been  making  weekly 
visits  to  it  from  early  in  October  until  late  in  December.  The 
fruit  from  this  tree  is  about  the  size  of  a  small  black  walnut, 
deep  yellow  with  a  blush  on  the  sunny  side,  a  down  or  bloom 
similar  to  some  plums;  sweet,  juicy,  rich,  melting,  with  no  pun- 
gency, and  mostly  only  three  seeds. 

Some  trees  here  bear  fruits  no  larger  than  a  good -sized 
cherry.  On  some  the  outer  skin  turns  black  when  the  fruit  is 


PERSIMMON    AND    KAKI 


437 


ripe;    these   are  the    last  to    ripen.      Some   are  dry  and  sugary 

when  ripe,  and    many  are    always  puckery.     Saplings  three  feet 

high  are  loaded  with  fruit,  and  the  largest  trees  reach  thirty  feet. 

The   natives  seem  to  care  little  for  them ;   even  the  negroes 


Fig.  119.    Shiino-Shiradzu,  a  kaki.    Natural  size. 

scarcely  eat  them,  but  do  make  them  into  "  'simmon  beer."  I 
have  come  in  contact  with  natives  in  the  mountains  who  did  not 
know  they  were  fit  to  eat.  I  believe  that  a  plantation  of  carefully 
selected  trees,  properly  cared  for  and  marketed  in  the  best 
season,  would  be  a  paying  investment. 

The  Japanese  persimmon,  or  kaki,  has  been  brought 


438         THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

to  a  high  degree  of  perfection,  the  fruit  being  eaten 
from  the  hand,  in  various  culinary  preparations,  and 
as  a  dried  fig-like  conserve.  The  kaki  has  been  intro- 
duced to  this  country,  and  is  already  establishing  a 
reputation  in  the  better  markets.  This  noble  fruit  has 
called  attention  anew  to  the  native  persimmon,  and 
particularly  so  since  the  foreigner  will  not  thrive 
north  of  Washington,  whereas  the  native  will  often 
fruit  as  far  north  as  Massachusetts.  It  is  very  prob- 
able that  the  two  species  will  hybridize,  and  that  the 
amalgamation  will  give  something  of  distinct  value. 
But  even  if  hybrids  are  not  obtained,  the  native 
species  is  capable  of  great  direct  improvement.  Figs. 
119  and  120  (from  Georgeson,  in  "American  Garden") 
show  two  average  varieties  of  the  kaki ;  and  when 
Figs.  121  and  122  are  compared  with  them,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  chance  for  improvement  is  great. 

The  following  sketch  of  the  effect  of  cultivation 
on  the  persimmon  was  contributed  to  "American 
Garden"  in  1892,  by  J.  W.  B.,  Queens  county,  N.  Y.: 

The  native  persimmon  varies  much  in  its  habit  of  growth 
and  in  its  general  characteristics,  according  to  locality,  nutrition 
or  exposure.  In  New  Jersey  and  the  north  of  Pennsylvania  and 
Ohio  it  is  scarcely  more  than  a  tree -like  shrub,  while  in  the 
bottom-lands  of  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas  it  frequently  rises  to 
a  shapely  tree  forty  feet  high,  covered  with  fruit  which  is  dear 
to  the  heart  of  every  southern  boy  in  spite  of  its  intense  astrin- 
gency,  which,  in  its  green  state,  is  like  concentrated  tannic  acid. 
This  is  gradually  lost  as  the  fruit  ripens,  giving  place  to  a  mild, 
rich  sweetness  of  pulp,  which  to  some  persons  is  very  agreeable. 
Still,  the  persimmon,  in  its  wild  state,  is  not  a  general  favorite. 
It  is  eaten  in  the  South  chiefly  by  the  omnivorous  small  boy  and 
by  the  'coon  and  'possum.  Sometimes,  also,  it  is  mashed  into  a 
cake  with  cornmeal,  and  dried  for  the  brewing  of  what  is  known 
among  the  "crackers"  of  Carolina  as  "'simmon  beer." 


it 

si 

M 


II 

—  5 


\ 


440         THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

The  capacity  for  improvement,  however,  of  the  American 
persimmon  by  cultivation  is  beyond  question.  Fifteen  years  ago 
I  had  some  correspondence  with  the  poet  Bryant  (whose  zeal  as 
a  cultivator,  and  whose  interest  in  fruit-growing  were  almost  as 
great  as  his  poetic  enthusiasm)  on  the  subject  of  the  improve- 
ment of  our  native  fruits  by  high  cultivation.  Mr.  Bryant  often 
insisted  that  the  time  would  come  when  this  would  become  one 
of  the  popular  and  marketable  fruits  of  the  middle  states.  He 
gathered  specimens  and  varieties  of  the  Diospyros  Virginiana 
from  all  parts  of  the  South  and  West,  and  cultivated  them  most 
carefully,  and  his  pleasant  old  home  at  Roslyn  will  doubtless 


Fig.  121.    A  wild  persimmon.    Natural  size. 

show  to-day  some  relics  of  his  ingenious  care  in  the  laying  out 
and  arrangement  of  his  experimental  plantations. 

Mr.  Bryant  decided,  after  many  years  of  experiment  with  the 
persimmon,  that  the  finest  and  most  vigorous  varieties  were  those 
grown  in  the  alluvial  meadows  of  southern  Indiana;  and  he  sent 
me  some  specimens,  from  one  of  which,  by  high  fertilization  and 
root -pruning,  I  have  from  year  to  year  gathered  fruit  of  greatly 
improved  size  and  flavor.  I  enclose  a  rude  sketch  (Fig.  122)  of 
one  specimen  of  this  year's  fruit  from  one  of  the  trees  received 
from  Mr.  Bryant.  The  smaller  drawing  (Fig.  121)  shows  the  wild 
fruit,  which  has  received  no  special  care,  gathered  from  another 
tree. 

As  I  have  already  said,  the  astringency  of  the  fruit  is  much 
diminished  by  cultivation,  while  the  flavor  is  improved;  and,  as 


PERSIMMON.— ANON  A  441 

in  the  Japanese  persimmon  kaki,  the  pulp  becomes  more  abun- 
dant, and  the  seeds  are  reduced  in  number  from  five  in  the  wild 
state  to  two  or  even  one,  and  often  quite  disappear,  and  the 
fruit  becomes  absolutely  seedless. 

The    persimmon    is   an   ornamental   tree,    shapely   and    sym- 


Fig.  122.    Native  persimmon,  cultivated.    Natural  size. 

metrical  in  form;  its  bark  and  leaves  are  distinctive,  and  its 
wood  is  dense  and  heavy.  It  grows  readily  but  slowly  from 
seeds,  is  a  gross  feeder,  and  with  good  cultivation  and  care,  will 
produce  fruit  in  its  sixth  year.  It  is  perfectly  hardy  as  far 
north  as  Hartford,  Conn.,  and  will  bear  fruit  on  Long  Island 
from  year  to  year  without  interruption. 


The  Custard -Apple  Tribe 

In  the  tropics,  the  various  custard -apples  (anonas 
and  their  kin)  are  much  esteemed,  and  some  of  them 
are  grown  in  extreme  southern  Florida.  We  have 
only  one  native  species.  This  is  the  pond-apple  of 


442         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

southern  Florida,  known  to  botanists  as  Anona  glabra 
(or  A.  laurifo lia) .  It  is  a  small  tree,  sometimes 
reaching  the  height  of  thirty  or  forty  feet.  It  is  a 


Fig.  123.    The  Pond  apple.    Anona  glabra. 

striking  tree  as  it  grows  about  the  borders  of  the 
everglades,  its  roots  lying  under  the  water.  A  fruit  is 
shown  natural  size,  in  section,  in  Fig.  123.  It  is 


PAWPAW .  —THORN  -  APPLES  443 

oblong  -conical,  three  to  five  inches  long  and  two  or 
three  inches  broad,  light  yellow  and  becoming  brown- 
blotched,  with  many  large,  transverse  seeds.  The 
fruit  is  esteemed  by  the  Indians,  and  it  has  been  men- 
tioned as  worth}'  of  domestication,  but  although 
aromatic  it  is  insipid,  and  is  not  likely  to  attract 
consumers.  The  fruit  ripens  in  November. 

Of  the  asiminas,  or  so-called  pawpaws, — which 
are  also  anonaceous  plants, — there  are  several  species 
in  the  United  States.  One  of  these,  the  northern 
pawpaw  (AsimiiM  triloba)  bears  large  and  comestible 
fruits,  although  most  people  do  not  relish  the  flavor. 
Typical  fruits  are  shown  in  Fig.  124.  One  or  two 
named  varieties  have  been  offered  for  sale.  The  plant 
is  eminently  worthy  of  cultivation  for  its  ornamental 
qualities,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  we  are  to  expect  much 
interest  to  be  awakened  in  its  fruit. 

The  Thorn -Apples 

The  genus  crataegus  is  very  closely  allied  to  the 
apples  and  pears,  and  it  is  rich  in  American  species. 
Several  of  these  thorn-apples  produce  fruit  of  great 
beauty,  and  some  of  the  fruits  are  pulpy  and  edible, 
and  are  esteemed  in  various  localities.  As  long  ago 
as  1838,  the  Downings  wrote  of  one  of  these  thorns 
as  follows:*  "Mr.  Longworth,  of  Cincinnati,  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  horticulturists  of  the  West, 
writes  us,  in  a  recent  communication,  that  he  dis- 
covered, in  the  interior  of  Ohio  twenty -five  years 
ago,  a  variety  of  haw,  with  fruit  the  size  of  a  crab- 
apple,  having  a  delicious  flavor.  He  has  lately  re- 

*Hovey'»  Mag.  Hort.  1838.  46. 


NATIVE     NUTS  445 

discovered  it,  and  has  kindly  promised  to  forward  us 
some  grafts.  Should  it  prove  as  fine  as  he  anticipates, 
it  will  be  quite  an  addition  to  our  fruits,  as  it  is 
probably  very  beautiful  in  appearance." 

None  of  these  native  thorns  has  been  widely  ad- 
vertised or  sold  except  Cratcegus  cordata,  the  Wash- 
ington thorn  (Fig.  125),  and  this  is  known  for  hedges 
and  ornament  rather  than  for  fruit.  It  is  native  in 
Kentucky  and  southern  Illinois  and  southward,  but 
is  hardy  in  central  New  York.  It  has  long  been 
known  in  Europe.  It  is  a  beautiful  tree,  sometimes 
reaching  a  height  of  thirty  feet,  and  bearing  freely  of 
bright  red  apple -like  and  pleasant -tasted  fruits. 

The  Nut -Fruits 

North  America  is  peculiarly  rich  in  its  nuts.  The 
reader  will  recall  the  chestnuts,  many  kinds  of  hicko- 
ries, walnuts,  butternut,  hazels,  beechnut,  nut  pines, 
and  sweet  acorns.  Of  all  these  types,  only  one  species 
has  yet  reached  great  commercial  importance.  This  is 
the  pecan,  which  is  a  sepcies  of  hickory.  The  second 
place  in  the  progress  of  ameliorated  native  nuts  is 
taken  by  the  chestnut.  Beyond  these,  there  are 
no  species  which  have  attained  to  general  importance 
in  cultivation,  although  there  are  several  named  varie- 
ties of  the  shellbark  hickories  and  the  black  .walnut. 
The  interest  in  this  class  of  fruits  is  great,  however ; 
in  fact,  it  is  probably  givatcr  than  the  commercial 
importance  of  the  subject  warrants,  for  nuts  are  very 
secondary  articles  of  commerce  and,  not  being  per- 
ishable, they  can  be  dripped  jmy  distance,  or  even 
kept  from  year  to  year.  The  excellent  special  litera- 


LITERATURE    ON    NUTS  447 

ture  on  the  subject  obviates  any  necessity  of  discuss- 
ing the  subject  in  detail  in  this  place.  The  reader 
should  consult  Fuller's  "Nut  Culturist,"  and  the  ex- 
haustive quarto  report  .by  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  on  "Nut  Culture  in  the  United 
States."  For  chestnuts,  the  reader  may  also  consult 
Buckhout,  "Chestnut  Culture  for  Profit,"  Bull.  36, 
Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station  ;  and,  for  a  sketch 
of  the  botan}7  of  the  subject,  Sargent's  great  "Silva" 
(which  discusses  the  other  nut  trees  also),  and  Bailey 
in  "American  Garden,"  May,  1891. 


IX  . 

GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  THE  IMPROVEMENT 
OF  OUR  NATIVE  FRUITS* 

HAVING  thus  seen  what  has  actually  been  accom- 
plished in  the  amelioration  of  fruits  which  are  native 
to  this  country,  we  may  now  take  a  general  survey  of 
the  status  of  the  subject  and  of  the  means  by  which 
the  evolution  has  been  accomplished. 

The  chief  reason  for  supposing  that  the  native 
fruits  should  be  domesticated  seems  to  be  the  most 
obvious  fact  that  they  have  merit  in  themselves  ;  and 
yet,  paradoxical  as  it  may  seem,  I  imagine  that  this 
is  not  sufficient  reason  to  recommend  their  ameliora- 
tion. It  is  not  the  thing  which  is  intrinsically  the 
best  which  necessarily  deserves  the  most  attention, 
but  the  thing  which  is  most  needed.  We  shall  find 
our  most  helpful  suggestions  from  a  reflection  on  what 
has  been  accomplished  and  how  it  has  been  done, 
rather  than  from  a  mere  objective  study  of  the  kinds 
of  our  wild  fruits.  I  propose,  therefore,  to  divide  this 
essay  into  two  parts,— what  has  been  done,  and 
what  probably  should  be  done. 

What  Has  Been  Done 

The  most  obvious  truth  which  strikes  one  when  he 
attempts  to  make  a  reflective  or  historical  study  of 

*  Reprint,  with  minor  modifications,  of  a  paper  contributed  by  the  author 
to  the  Yearbook  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  for  1896. 

(448) 


WHAT    FRUITS    ARE    AMELIORATED  449 

the  improvement  of  our  native  fruits,  is  the  fact  that 
in  nearly  every  case  the  amelioration  has  come  from 
the  force  of  circumstances  and  not  from  the  choice  or 
design  of  men.  Let  me  be  specific.  The  colonists  — 
in  common  with  other  good  people  —  knew  and  loved 
wine.  The  beverage  has  been  a  hand  to  hand — or 
more  truthfully  a  hand  to  mouth — companion  of  the 
human  family  from  the  first.  The  attempt  was  there- 
fore early  and  heroically  made  to  grow  the  European 
or  wine  grape  in  eastern  America ;  but  the  attempt 
failed.  In  sheer  distress  of  failure,  the  grape -grower 
was  driven  to  the  use  of  the  native  grape.  How 
literally  true  this  was  the  reader  may  learn  by  read- 
ing the  history  of  the  grape  colony  of  the  Dufours  in 
Kentucky  and  then  in  Indiana  late  in  the  last  century 
and  early  in  this,  and  noting  the  fact  that  the  exist- 
ence of  the  colony,  as  such,  depended  upon  the  success 
of  the  wine.  The  salvation  of  the  colony  was  the  Alex- 
ander or  Cape  grape,  which,  in  a  most  surreptitious 
way,  had  transferred  itself  from  the  wild  into  planta- 
tions which  were  at  first  designed  to  grow  the  Euro- 
pean varieties  ;  and  later  on,  John  Adi  urn's  famous 
Catawba,  a  product  of  the  Carolina  highlands,  added 
the  crowning  glory  and  success  to  the  experiment, 
and  thence  spread  itself  along  the  Ohio  and  over 
the  Union.  And  yet,  while  the  Alexander  and  the 
Catawba  were  driving  out  the  Old  World  types,  the 
grape -growers  were  at  the  very  time  making  a  most 
determined  opposition  to  native  grapes.  The  fact  is 
that  the  native  grapes — the  types  which  we  now  culti- 
vate— came  into  domestication  in  spite  of  us. 

The  native  plums— of  which  two  hundred  or  moro 
horticultural    varieties   are   now  described — came   into 

cc 


450         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

domestication  because  the  Old  World  plums,  with  which 
we  are  chiefly  familiar  in  the  northeastern  states,  will 
not  thrive  in  the  prairie  states  and  the  South.  The 
cultivated  native  plums  had  been  widely  disseminated 
'before  horticultural  annalists  discovered  the  fact;  and 
there  is  no  evidence  that  the  early  introducers  of  them 
had  any  suspicion  that  they  were  making  history  when 
they  planted  them.  These  plums  were,  no  doubt, 
looked  upon  as  a  makeshift  in  a  new  country, — as  a 
fruit  which  was  better  than  none  when  good  ones 
could  not  be  had. 

The  reason  why  the  native  raspberries  came  into 
cultivation  was  because  the  European  species  is  tender 
in  our  climate,  and  demands  too  much  care  and  pet- 
ting. The  native  types  of  gooseberries  drove  out  the 
foreign  ones  because  the  latter  are  injuriously  infested 
with  the  mildew.  The  native  crabs  are  now  demand- 
ing attention  where  the  climate  is  so  severe  that  the 
cultivated  apple  cannot  thrive.  The  wild  red  mul- 
berry has  been  improved  because  the  Old  World  black 
mulberry  is  tender,  and  we  have  been  so  ignorant  of 
the  fact  that  we  have  all  along  supposed  that  these 
natives  are  forms  of  the  Old  World  species.  The 
Chilian  strawberry—the  foundation  stock  of  our 
commercial  varieties— brought  itself  into  domestication 
while  men  were  bent  upon  impressing  the  Virginian 
berry  into  service  ;  and  most  of  our  writers  still  insist 
upon  calling  the  common  garden  strawberries  descend- 
ants of  the  latter  species,  so  ignorant  are  they  of 
the  true  course  of  the  evolution. 

The  obverse  of  this  picture  is  likewise  instructive 
in  showing  how  difficult  it  is  to  introduce  and  to 
improve  fruits  which  are  not  forced  upon  us.  For  a 


WHY    SOME    FRUITS    ARE    IMPROVED  451 

century  and  more,  the  native  nuts  have  attracted  the 
attention  of  economic  writers.  Their  merits  for  food 
have  been  praised  without  stint  for  years.  Two  excel- 
lent books  have  been  written  about  them.  Yet  they 
have  made  very  little  progress  towards  amelioration. 
The  simple  reason  is  that  we  have  not  been  pressed 
by  any  necessity  to  grow  them.  No  nuts  are"  staple 
articles  of  food  among  the  peoples  who  have  chiefly 
settled  the  United  States.  They  are  essentially  sub- 
sidiary and  incidental  features  in  our  lives.  So, 
while  we  all  like  hickory  nuts  and  walnuts  and  the 
like,  we  are  nevertheless  not  impelled  by  any  over- 
mastering necessity  to  gather  the  trees  into  the  garden 
or  the  orchard.  We  associate  them  more  with  the 
woods  and  the  landscape  and  the  outings,  than  we  do 
with  the  kitchen  and  the  larder.  They  have  no  con- 
spicuous places  in  our  heritage  of  customs  and  asso- 
ciations, as  the  apples  and  grapes  and  berries  have. 

Much  the  same  observation  can  be  made  respect- 
ing the  native  huckleberries,  fruits  which  have  been 
recommended  time  and  again  as  proper  subjects  for 
amelioration,  and  yet  practically  nothing  has  been 
done  towards  their  improvement.  The  chief  reason 
of  this  neglect  is,  it  seems  to  me,  that  the  imperative 
needs  which  the  huckleberries  may  be  supposed  to 
satisfy,  are  already  supplied  in  large  measure  by  other 
berry -like  fruits. 

There  are  apparent  exceptions  to  all  this  in  the 
cranberry  and  blackberry,  for  neither  of  these  fruits 
had  ever  been  an  important  food  for  the  human  race. 
Yet  the  very  abundance  of  these  fruits,  and  their 
adaptability  to  the  common  needs  of  life,  forced  them 
upon  the  attention  of  the  settlers  and  colonists,  who 


452          THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

were  often  pressed  for  food.  It  was  but  natural  that, 
as  the  wild  areas  of  the  fruits  became  restricted,  at- 
tempts should  have  been  made  to  grow  the  plants. 

The  minor  small  fruits  which  have  recently  come 
into  notice  from  the  West  have  been  impressed  into 
domestication  chiefly  because  of  the  comparative 
scarcity  of  domestic  fruits  in  the  regions  from  whence 
they  come.  Some  of  these  are  the  buffalo -berry,  the 
dwarf  juneberry,  the  Crandall  currant  type,  and  the 
dwarf  cherries  and  dwarf  plums. 

Whereas  the  fact  has  been  that  the  reigning  types 
of  improved  native  fruits  have  come  into  cultivation 
largely  as  a  result  of  the  force  of  conditions  rather 
than  as  a  direct  or  designed  choice  on  the  part  of 
men,  it  nevertheless  does  not  follow  that  intelligent 
choice  of  species  has  not  played  an  important  part  in 
the  evolution,  and  that  it  may  not  count  for  much 
more  in  the  years  to  come.  Yet  the  student  should 
bear  in  mind  the  fact  that  all  the  most  needful  types 
of  native  fruits  have  now  been  impressed  into  cultiva- 
tion, and  that  those  which  yet  remain  in  an  almost 
wholly  untutored  condition, — as  many  of  the  nuts, 
the  elderberries,  the  asimina,  and  others — will  come 
into  cultivation,  if  at  all,  only  through  the  expendi- 
ture of  great  effort  to  make  their  merits  and  possi- 
bilities known.  From  now  on,  the  attempt  to  intro- 
duce new  types  of  native  fruits  must  be,  broadly 
speaking,  a  forced  effort.  But  if  this  is  true,  it  does 
not  follow  that  our  efforts  at  amelioration  should 
cease,  but  rather  that  the  most  promising  and  the 
most  useful  expenditure  of  energy  is  to  be  found  in 
still  further  improving  the  species  which  are  already 
thoroughly  established  in  cultivation,  for  none  of 


HOW     THE     VARIETIES     HAVE     COME  453 

these  types  are  yet — and,  in  fact,  never  will  be — 
brought  to  that  condition  when  they  may  be  said  to 
be  good  enough.  This  conclusion,  while  apparently 
the  only  logical  one,  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
reached  by  writers  on  the  improvement  of  our  na- 
tive fruits.  The  tendency  of  writers  has  always 
been,  unfortunately,  to  press  the  importance  of  un- 
developed species,  forgetting  that  the  really  impor- 
tant things  are  the  ones  which  we  already  have,  and 
all  of  which  are  far  from  perfect.  The  whole  ques- 
tion, then,  is  simply  that  of  the  best  methods  of  im- 
proving fruits,  without  respect  to  their  nativities. 

Having  now  seen  that  new  types  of  plants  are 
impressed  into  cultivation  largely  because  they  are 
needed,  and  in  an  undesigned  or  almost  fortuitous 
way,  let  us  ask  how  these  particular  domestic  fruits 
which  are  native  to  North  America  have  been  ame- 
liorated. The  process  has  been  a  most  simple  one: 
attractive  varieties,  or  forms,  have  been  found  and 
men  have  transferred  them  to  the  garden.  This,  in 
essence,  has  been  the  method  of  the  amelioration  of 
most  domestic  plants.  It  is  first  a  discovery  of  a  good 
form,  and  then  the  perpetuation  of  it.  What  has 
been  called  plant -breeding  is  mostly  discovery;  or,  in 
other  words,  so  far  as  the  cultivator  is  concerned,  it  is 
accident.*  In  one  place,  an  attractive  wild  blackberry 

*  These  remarks  concerning  the  accidental  origin  of  varieties  call  out  the 
following  significant  comment  from  Frank  T.  Swett,  Contra  Costa  couuty, 
California :  "  While  chance  seedlings  spring  up  in  fence  corners  and  similar 
places  in  countries  where  there  are  summer  rains,  it  is  H  rare  occurrence  in 
arid  regions.  This  was  brought  to  my  notice  forcibly  this  spring.  In  May 
and  June  our  vineyard  was  filled  with  tens  of  thousands  of  little  grape  seed- 
lings, an  inch  or  two  high.  They  never  grew  much  higher,  and  by  July  they 
had  all  perished.  It  is  the  same  in  our  orchards.  The  five  months  of  drought 
are  too  much  for  any  seedling  fruit,  unless  it  is  irrigated.  As  similar  condi- 
tions of  summer  drought  are  prevalent  over  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and  parti 
of  Texas,  it  is  hardly  probable  that  many  chance  seedling  varieties  will  origi- 
nate within  those  limits." 


454         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

is  found.  The  bush  is  taken  to  the  garden  and  it  is 
called — after  the  name  of  the  town — the  Dorchester. 
In  another  place,  another  form  is  discovered,  and  this, 
when  transplanted,  becomes  known  as  the  Lawton  or 
New  Rochelle.  Another  form  is  found  on  a  prairie, 
and  is  called  Western  Triumph.  Now  and  then  one 
comes  up  about  an  old  plantation,  and  is  similarly 
cared  for ;  and  rarely  a  man  sows  seeds  and  picks  out 
a  good  variety  from  the  seedlings  ;  and  very  rarely  a 
man  keeps  a  record  of  the  parentage  of  the  seed  he 
sows ;  and  very,  very  rarely  one  makes  crosses  and 
sows  the  seeds  therefrom. 

But  while  the  new  varieties  are  mostly  discoveries, 
it  does  not  follow  that  there  is  no  skill  represented  in 
these  novelties.  The  skill  is  shown  in  the  recognition 
of  a  good  thing,  in  giving  the  plants  the  very  best  of 
care  when  once  they  have  been  transferred  to  the 
garden ;  and  the  force  of  this  domestication  is  likely 
to  express  itself  in  better  or  more  tractable  offspring 
in  each  generation.  The  tendency  towards  better- 
ment is  constantly  augmented  by  the  habitual  selec- 
tion of  the  best  new  forms.  The  tendency  could  be 
much  more  rapidly  hastened  if,  in  addition  to  select- 
ing the  best  seedlings  which  chance  to  appear,  the 
operator  should  also  select  the  seeds  from  the  best 
plants  with  which  to  raise  the  seedlings. 

The  reader  may  now  want  a  specific  account  of 
just  how  a  few  prominent  varieties  of  native  fruits 
have  originated.  The  old  Cape  or  Alexander  grape, 
which  first  introduced  a  successful  viticulture  into 
eastern  America,  was  found  wild  in  the  woods  in 
Pennsylvania,  as  we  have  seen.  The  Catawba,  which 
is  still  a  popular  commercial  variety,  was  found  in 


ORIGIN    OP    GRAPES  455 

the  woods  in  South  Carolina  in  1802.  There  are,  no 
doubt,  as  good  forms  of  the  native  fox -grape  in  the 
woods  now  as  there  were  then,  but  we  have  now  ob- 
tained a  start  in  grape -growing,  and  we  are  no  longer 
looking  to  the  wild  for  our  varieties.  The  fox -grape 
is  known  to  be  widely  variable  in  its  wild  state,  and  I 
have  this  year  obtained  no  less  than  half  a  dozen  types 
of  large  and  handsome  wild  fruits  of  it,  varying  from 
deep  purple  to  amber -red.  The  Concord  was  a 
chance  seedling  in  a  Massachusetts  garden,  and  it  is 
supposed  to  have  sprung  from  the  wild  fox -grape  of 
the  neighborhood.  The  Worden  was  raised  from  a 
seed  of  the  Concord.  The  Delaware  was  found  in  the 
garden  of  a  Frenchman  in  New  Jersey,  about  fifty 
years  ago,  but  its  genesis  is  wholly  unknown.  It  is 
probably  a  product  of  an  accidental  cross  between  the 
European  grape — which  the  Frenchman  cultivated — 
and  some  variety  of  native  grape.  The  Brighton  is 
the  product  of  a  hand  cross  between  the  Concord 
and  the  Diana-Hamburg  (the  latter  itself  a  hybrid) 
by  Jacob  Moore,  then  of  Brighton,  N.  Y.  The  Diana, 
which  was  a  prominent  variety  for  many  years, 
was  grown  from  a  Catawba  seed  in  Milton,  Mass. 
Moore's  Early  was  grown  from  a  seed  of  the  Concord. 
The  Clinton  came  up  where  a  handful  of  grape  seed 
was  sown  at  Hamilton  College,  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  and 
the  old  vine,  now  about  seventy-five  years  old,  is  still 
growing  on  College  Hill.  The  Norton's  Virginia  was 
found  wild  in  1835,  near  Richmond,  Va.  The  Isabella 
was  brought  into  the  North  early  in  the  century.  Its 
origin  is  wholly  unknown,  and  has  been  the  subject  of 
much  speculation.  The  botanical  evidence  shows  that 
it  is  probably  a  native  form  of  the  fox -grape.  All 


456    THE  EVOLUTION  OP  OUR  NATIVE  FRUITS 

these  specific  illustrations  of  the  origins  of  varieties 
are  fairly  typical  for  all  native  fruits.  Most  of  the 
forms  are  random  or  chance  discoveries,  and  they  show 
that  the  natural  tendency  towards  progressive  variation 
in  the  indigenous  fruit -species  must  be  great,  else  the 
domesticated  forms  could  not  have  reached  their  present 
state.  If  so  much  has  been  done  by  mere  chance, — so 
far  as  the  horticulturist  is  concerned, — there  is  certainly 
reason  for  believing  that  the  rewards  of  plant -breeding 
must  some  day  be  great. 

What   Probably   Should   be   Done 

What  has  been  done  need  not  be  done  over  again. 
That  is,  the  best  results  at  the  amelioration  of  any 
species  are  to  be  expected  by  working  with  the  highly 
improved  forms  rather  than  with  the  original  wild 
stock.  The  quickest  response  to  the  plant -breeder  is 
to  be  expected  in  those  species  which  are  already  most 
ameliorated,  and  it  is  in  these  species,  also,  that  the 
greatest  efforts  are  needed,  because  they  are  the  species 
which  have  the  most  useful  qualities  for  man.  One 
cannot  specify  how  the  native  fruits  may  be  improved 
without  going  into  the  whole  subject  of  the  ameliora- 
tion of  plants  (a  discussion  of  which  I  have  already 
made  in  my  « Plant- Breeding" );  but  it  may  be  use- 
ful to  designate  some  of  the  things  which  seem  to 
need  to  be  done. 

In  the  first  place,  we  need  more  varieties  of  every 
native  fruit  now  cultivated— of  grapes,  raspberries, 
plums,  cranberries,  and  the  others.  This  is  because 
new  needs  are  always  arising  and  the  fruits  are  being 
grown  in  new  regions,  and  new  varieties  are  needed 


WHAT    WE    NEED  457 

to  adapt  the  species  to  these  new  wants.  Those  per- 
sons who  are  looking  for  the  coming  of  the  perfect, 
all -round  variety,  are  behind  the  time,  and  are  con- 
stantly getting  farther  behind,  for  it  is  more  and 
more  impossible  to  combine  all  the  varied  and  contra- 
dictory specific  desires  of  men  into  one  plant  form. 
There  must  be  a  best  variety  for  every  particular  use 
and  locality  and  soil.  The  cosmopolitan  variety  must 
become  more  and  more  restricted  in  range  and  useful- 
ness as  time  goes  on,  and  as  more  refined  and  specific 
needs  arise.  People  are  always  saying  that  we  already 
have  too  many  varieties  and  the  effort  is  always  mak- 
ing to  reduce  the  number.  Even  the  experimenters 
in  the  stations  usually  conceive  it  to  be  a  part  of 
their  duty  to  endeavor  to  reduce  the  number  of  varie- 
ties, but  what  they  are  really  doing — or  might  be 
doing — is  determining  the  merits  of  varieties  for 
specific  uses.  If  a  given  variety  does  not  satisfy 
the  ideal  of  the  experimenter,  that  fact  is  no  proof 
that  it  may  not  satisfy  the  ideal  of  some  one  else, 
or  that  it  may  not  be  a  positive  acquisition  in  some 
other  place  or  for  some  other  purpose.  We  shall 
always  need  to  test  varieties,  to  be  sure,  and  the 
testing  must  be  more  exact  and  personal  the  more 
critical  we  become  in  our  demands.  It  is  out  of  the 
many  new  varieties  that  we  shall  find  the  particular 
ones  which  we  ourselves  desire. 

In  the  second  place,  we  need  a  greater  range  of 
variation, — more  divergent  and  widely  unlike  varieties. 
These  can  be  had  by  selecting  out  of  the  annually 
recurring  batches  of  new  varieties  those  which  are 
widest  unlike  the  existing  types,  providing,  of  course, 
they  are  worthy  to  be  perpetuated.  But  they  can  be 


458         THE    EVOLUTION    OP    OUE    NATIVE    FRUITS 

most  surely  obtained  by  raising  seedlings  from  the 
most  unlike  types,  and  by  the  crossing  of  various 
types. 

In  the  third  place,  we  need  to  secure  more  inci- 
dental or  minor  strains  of  the  most  popular  and 
cosmopolitan  varieties.  The  Concord  grape,  for  ex- 
ample, is  a  most  virile  and  useful  type,  and  minor 
varieties  of  it — even  if  they  were  still  called  Concord — 
might  adapt  the  variety  more  completely  to  some  par- 
ticular purpose  or  locality.  In  many  districts,  for 
example,  a  Concord  a  week  earlier  or  a  week  later 
than  the  standard  variety,  might  be  more  useful  than 
a  variety  wholly  new  in  kind.  I  introduce  this  class 
of  facts  to  show  that,  while  we  need  more  varied  types 
in  our  native  fruits,  we  also  need  to  increase  the  use- 
fulness of  regnant  types  by  inducing  secondary  vari- 
ations in  them.  There  are  two  means  of  securing 
these  minor  variations.  The  surest  means  is  to  take 
cuttings  or  buds  from  those  particular  plants  in  our 
plantation  which  most  nearly  fit  our  purposes.  In 
almost  every  large  Concord  vineyard,  for  example, 
there  are  some  vines  which  are  earlier  or  later,  more 
or  less  productive,  or  otherwise  different  from  the 
type.  In  many  cases,  the  cuttings  will  perpetuate 
these  differences .  The  second  means  of  securing  these 
incidental  forms  is  by  crossing  between  plants  of  the 
same  variety.  I  am  convinced  that  this  type  of  plant- 
breeding  is,  in  general,  quite  as  useful  as  that  of 
crossing  unlike  varieties  ;  and  after  a  wide  range  of 
variation  has  been  secured  and  when  men's  ideals 
have  become  critical  through  education  and  business 
competition,  it  will  be  the  more  promising  field. 

In  the    fourth   place,   it   should    be   said    that   the 


ELEMENTS    OF    A    WISE    CHOICE  459 

greatest  effort  should  be  made  to  preserve  or  to 
intensify  those  desirable  attributes  which  are  charac- 
teristics of  the  wild  species.  Such  attributes  are 
likely  to  be  more  virile  and  permanent  than  similar 
ones  which  originate  under  domestication,  because  they 
have  been  impressed  upon  the  species  for  a  longer 
period  of  time.  The  intending  plant -breeder  can  save 
himself  much  time  and  strength  by  throwing  his 
efforts  into  line  with  the  direction  of  evolution  of 
the  species  rather  than  against  it.  He  cannot  afford 
even  to  be  indifferent  to  the  natural  capabilities  of 
the  type.  For  example,  other  things  being  equal,  the 
domesticator  will  generally  have  better  results  in  breed- 
ing plants  for  a  dry  region  by  selecting  those  types 
which  naturally  grow  in  such  regions.  The  adapting 
of  the  grape  to  limestone  soils  can  no  doubt  be 
quicker  accomplished  by  endeavoring  to  breed  up 
acceptable  varieties  from  Vitis  Berlandieri,  which 
thrives  in  these  lands,  than  by  attempting  to  over- 
come the  pronounced  antipathies  of  the  Vitis  Labrusca 
types  to  such  soils.  The  first  attempt,  in  impressing 
new  fruit -species  into  cultivation,  should  be  to  secure 
a  type  which  will  thrive  in  the  given  region  ;  the  pro- 
duction of  ameliorated  varieties  is  a  secondary  and 
usually  much  simpler  matter.  The  first  consideration 
in  breeding  plums  for  the  dry  plains  regions,  for 
example,  is  to  secure  a  type  which  will  endure  the 
climate, — the  long  droughts,  the  severe  winters,  the 
hot  summers.  This  fundamental  desideratum  may  be 
expected  to  be  found  in  the  indigenous  plums,  rather 
than  in  the  domesticated  types.  This  is  saying  that 
one  of  the  most  promising  lines  of  effort  in  the  im- 
provement of  the  native  fruits  is  to  work  with  the 


460         THE    EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NATIVE    FRUITS 

species  which  are  indigenous  to  the  locality,  if  they 
possess  coveted  features  and  if  they  are  naturally 
variable. 

All  this  means,  what  I  have  already  said,  that 
there  should  be  a  general  improvement  all  along  the 
line  in  our  native  fruits,  the  same  as  there  should  be 
in  any  other  fruits ;  and  the  greatest  improvement 
is  needed  in  those  very  types  which  are  already  most 
improved.  In  other  words,  we  need  more  to  augment 
the  amelioration  of  types  already  domesticated,  than 
we  do  to  introduce  wholly  new  types,  although  this 
latter  enterprise  is  also  of  great  importance.  The 
new  types  may  be  expected  to  come  into  use  as  the 
demand  for  them  arises,  and  they  will  come  in 
gradually,  and  obscurely  at  first,  as  the  other  types 
have  come. 

The  grape,  in  my  estimation,  needs  the  first  and 
the  greatest  attention.  The  types  which  we  grow  are 
yet  much  inferior  to  the  Old  World  types.  Our  com- 
mercial varieties  — as  the  Concord,  Worden,  Catawba, 
Niagara,  Norton's  Virginia  —  are  generalized  types, 
and  the  market  is  now  overrun  with  general -purpose 
grapes.  We  shall  soon  be  driven  into  specializations 
in  grapes,  as  people  have  been  in  older  countries,  and 
special  varieties  will  then  be  needed.  Aside  from 
the  further  improvement  of  the  domesticated  native 
species,  we  are  now  being  driven— by  the  settlement 
of  the  South  and  West— to  the  improvement  of  other 
species,  like  Vitis  Linsecomii,  Vitis  Champini,  and  the 
like.  The  second  greatest  need  is  in  the  development 
of  our  native  plum  flora ;  the  third  is  in  the  further 
evolution  of  the  brambles,  as  the  raspberries,  black- 
berries and  dewberries;  the  fourth  is  in  the  amalga- 


SUMMARY  461 

mation  of  the  western  crabs  with  the  domestic  apples, 
for  the  plains  and  the  northwest.  Beyond  these  four 
emphatic  needs,  I  think  that  there  are  none  which 
stand  out  clearly  and  unmistakably  above  all  others, 
although  there  are  a  score  of  native  fruit -types  which 
are  crying  for  attention.  Among  them  may  be  men- 
tioned the  chestnuts,  pecans,  gooseberries,  currants, 
cranberries,  huckleberries,  juneberries,  cherries,  mul- 
berries, elderberries,  and  all  the  tribes  of  hickory  nuts 
and  walnuts. 

The  stimulus,  or  raison  d'etre,  of  the  improvement 
of  native  fruits  will  be  the  increasing  demands  made 
by  a  complex  civilization ;  and  the  actual  work  of 
improvement  will  be  done  by  a  few  patient  souls 
whose  love  of  the  work  far  outruns  desire  for 
applause  and  for  pecuniary  reward. 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Acorns 445 

Adams,  B.  F 337,  338 

—  H.C 337 

—  Prest 60 

Adlum,  John.... 43,  49,  50,57,  61,  96,  449 

-  book  by 118  j 

Adlumia 51 

Affleck,  Thos 65   | 

Alton,  on  prunus 184, 185  | 

—  on  rubiis 366,  367 

Alaska,  berries  in 388 

Albaugh,  B.  F 332,  334 

Albertson  &  Hobbs 177 

Alexander,  Mr 43 

Allen,  John  Fisk 70 

-J.F.,bookby 118 

-L.F 286 

—  Walter  B 392 

Amatis,  Mr 138 

Ainelanchier  alnifolia 406 

—  Botryapium 406 

—  oblongifolia 406 

Americana  plums 182 

Ammen,  Father 96 

Andrae,  E.  H.,  book  by 118 

Anona  glabra 442 

-  laurifolia 442 

Anonas 441 

Antill,  Edward 16 

Apples,  native 249,  450,  461 

Arctostaphylos  alpina 389 

Asimina  triloba 443,444 

Aster  spectabilis 416 

Aughinbaugh  dewberry 354 

Austin,  C.  F 288 

_  J.  W 345 

—  dewberry 344 

Bailey.  L.  H.,  books  by 118 

quoted 203.221,222.447 

—  &  Hanford....  ....350 


PAGE 
Bake-apple  berry  ...............  365,  387 

Balch,  D.M  .........................  50 

Barber,  Mrs.  C  ......................  60 

Barry,  quoted  .......................  392 

Bartel,  Dr  ..................  335,339,350 

-  dewberry  ....................  335,  346 

Bartles,  T.  C  ....................  336,  339 

Bartram,  Isaac  ......................  433 

—  Moses,  on  silk  worm  .............  141 

—  William  .......................  5,8,46 

Bassett,  Wm.  F  .....................  214 

Bassler,  Thomas  ....................  207 

Batt,  quoted  ........................    7 

Bauer's  nursery  ....................  352 

Beach,  Solomon  .....................  56 

-S.A  ..............................  396 


—  plums  ............................  214 

Bear  berries  ........................  389 

Beardslee,  Mr  .......................  323 

Bechtel's  crab  ......................  261 

Beck,  Professor  .....................  367 

Beech  nut  ...........................  445 

Berckmans,  P.  J  ................  165,  213 

Berkeley,  William  ..................  134 

Berries,  various  .....................  386 

Bessey,  quoted  .........  226,  235,  239,  242 

Beverley,  Robert,  qnoted..5,  6,  11,  12,  134 
Bigelow,  on  rubus  ..................  360 

Bilberries  ...........................  387 

Blackberries,  synopsis  of  ...........  377 

Blackberry  history  .................  298 

—  mentioned  ...............  451,  453,  461 

Blackcap  ............................  289 

Blackman,  Dr  .......................  202 

Black-rot  ......................  88,90.95 

Blueberries  .................  387.389,416 

Bogen,  Mr  ...........................  65 

Bolzius,  John  Martin  ...............  137 

Bonoeil,  silk-raising  .................  128 

Books  on  grapes  ....................  1J8 


(463) 


464 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Books  on  mulberries 155 

Bordeaux  mixture 96 

Bostwick,  Wm 68 

Bradford,  mentioned 170 

Brainard,  G.  W 412 

Brandt.  D 412 

Bright,  William,  book  by 118 

Brighton  grape 71,  455 

Brinckle.Wm.  D 283,284 

Britton,  quoted 103,  323,  352,  367 

Brockett,  quoted 141,  149 

Brown,  Robert 250 

Broyles,  M.  W 348 

Bryant,  William  Cullen 440 

Buchanan,  Rob't 47.  C3,  65,  86,  96 

book  by 119 

Buckhout  on  Chestnuts 447 

Budd,  Professor 241,  264,  410 

Buffalo-berry 406,452 

—  currant 401 

Buist,  Robert 283,284 

Bull,  E.W 72,73 

-grape 98 

Bullace  grape 98 

Bullit  grape 98 

Bunch  berries 389 

Bundy,  Jos 179 

Burbank,  Luther 216,  217 

Bush  &  Son  &  Meissner 92 

book  by 119 

Busby,  Jas..  book  by 119 

Butternuts 445 

California,  grapes  in 87,  89 

Cape  Cod  cranberries 414 

Cape  grape 40,  42,  61 

Card,  F.  W 228,230,283, 

291,  294,  298,  326,  346,  351,  371,  389 

Carat  striata 416 

Carman,  E.  S 326 

Carolina,  silk  in 134 

Carroll,  of  Carrollton 23 

Cartier,  Jacques 170 

Catawba 50,455 

Cerasus  borealis 193 

Chamisso  &  Schlechtendal 352 

Chandler,  E.  H 435 

Charlton,  Wm.,  books  by 119, 120 

Cherries,  dwarf 233 

—  mentioned 171, 174,  452,  461 


PAGE 

Cherries,  native 226 

Chestnuts  discussed 445 

-mentioned 170,445,461 

Chickasaw  plums 191 

Childs,  John  Lewis 326 

Chilian  strawberry 427 

China,  mulberries  in 128 

Choke  cherry 227,  228,  230 

Churchill,  J.  R 323 

Cider  from  crabs 259 

Cincinnati,  horticulture  in. . .  .63,  65,  86 

Cist,  quoted 63,  95 

Clapp,  Aaron,  book  by 155 

Clark,  Mrs.  Charity 202 

Clarke,  John,  bpok  by 155 

Cliniate  on  plums 199 

Clinton  grape 77, 102,  455 

Cloudberry 364,387 

Clusius,  quoted 210,  211 

Cobb,  Jonathan  H 143,  144,  149 

book  by 155 

Cole,  quoted 392 

Collins,  John  S 314 

Compass  cherry 244 

Comstock,  F.  G.,  book  by 156 

Concord  grape 72,  455,  457,  458 

Congress  on  silk  raising  ....  142  et  seq. 

Connecticut,  silk  in 138  et  seq. 

Cook,  Dewain 341,  343 

Cope.  F.  J 120 

Corbett,  Professor 407 

Corneau,  J.  A 65 

Cornell,  Wm.  T 68 

Cornus   Cauadensis 389 

—  Suecica 389 

Crab-apples 249,  450,  461 

Craig,  quoted 230 

Cranberry,  high-bush 412 

-  mentioned 70,  388,  451,  4G1 

-sketch  of 414 

Crandall,  R.  W 401 

—  currant 401,  452 

Cratsegus  cordata 445,  446 

Crehore,  Mrs.  Diana 70 

Crowberries 388 

Crozier,  quoted 283 

Curlew-berries 387 

Currants  in  Massachusetts 13 

—  mentioned 170,  387,  388,  461 


INDEX 


465 


PAGE 

Currant,  sketch  of 399  j 

Custard-apple 441 

Cynthiana  grape 80 

Cutter.  Eliz.H 120 

Damsons 174 

Date  plum 434 

Davis,  Chas.  A 185 

Davy,  General 55 

Dawson,  Jackson 233 

Deane,  Walter 323 

De  Berneaud,  book  by 120 

De  Caradeuc,  A 212 

De  Hazzi 143, 157 

Delauriere,  Mrs 262 

Delaware  grape 71 

De  Lyon,  Abraham 14 

Dennis,  Jonathan,  book  by 156 

Denniston,  G.,  book  by.. 120 

Dent,  Mrs.  H 60 

Desfontaine 255 

Dewberries,  sketch  of 330 

—  synopsis  of 371 

Dewberry,  mentioned. .  .70,  388,  389,  461 
Dewey,  Dr 425 

—  D.  M .....349,350 

—  LysterH 207 

Diamond  grape 71 

Diana  grape 70,  455 

Dieck,  mentioned 244 

Diospyros  Virginiana 433,  440 

Dodd,  William '. 175 

Doolittle,  H.  H 282 

Dore,  Andrew 16 

Douglas,  on  pyrus 250 

Douglas,  on  rubus 354 

Downer,  J.  S 176, 177 

Downing,  Charles 168,  285,  300,  390, 

392,  393,  394,  443 

—  mulberry 168 

Downing  V  Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees," 

164,  165,  175.  212,  263 

Drake,  quoted 130 

Du  Breuil,  book  by 120 

Dufonr  family 23.  440 

—  John  James 21  et  seq..  93,  96 

book  by 120 

Dufonr's  first  experiment 21 

—  second  experiment 33 

Duponcean,  book  by 158 


PAGE 

Dwarf  cherries 233 

D  wight,  Timothy 424 

Eastwood,  book  by 414 

Eckelberger,  Thos 49 

Ehrhart,  quoted 210 

Eisen,  Gustav,  book  by 121 

Elderberry,  mentioned 389,  410,  461 

Eley,  Charles  N 213 

Eliot,  Jared 138, 139, 140 

—  John 426 

Elkins,  Thomas 165 

Elliott,  F.  R 65 

Empetrum  nigrum 388 

Engelman,  Dr 83 

—  quoted 104 

Ennis  &  Patten 181 

Evans,  W.  H 388 

Everbearing  raspberry 279 

Fay,  Lincoln 73 

Ferrar,  John 132 

Fessenden,  T.  G.,  book  by 156 

Filberts 170 

Fisher,  book  by 121 

Fitch,  Dr.  Asa 91 

Fitze,  C.  G 213 

Flagg,  Wm.  J.,  book  by 121 

Florida,  grapes  in 3,    8 

Ford  &  Son 401,  411 

Fox,  the  name 5 

Fox-grape,  98.    See,  also,  Vitis  La- 

brusca. 
Fragaria  Americana 425.  430,  431 

—  braeteala 431 

—  California 432 

—  Canadensis 429 

-  Chiloensis 389,  431,  432 

—  elatior 425 

-glauca 432 

-lllinoensis 420 

-lowensis 420 

-Mexicana 4HO 

-vescs 425.430 

-  Virginiana 420 

Fugger.  Mr 69 

Fuller.  A.  S 04.238.286.287. 

288,  295,  302,  314.  321,  447 

book  by I'Jl 

-G.W 343 

Gale.E 222 


DD 


466 


INDEX 


PAGE 
94 

232 


Galloway,  B.  T 

Gattinger,  Dr 

Gaultheria  Shallon  .................  389 

Geer  dewberry  ......................  344 

General  Grant  dewberry  ............  348 

Georgeson,  quoted  ..................  438 

Georgia,  grapes  in  ..................  13 

—  silk  in  .....................  134  et  seq. 

Geyer,  mentioned  ...................  238 

Gibbs,  Mrs.  Isabella  ................  66 

Gillet,  Felix  .........................  167 

Gipson,  quoted  ......................  239 

Goff,  quoted  ................  226,  337,  349 

Goessmann,  C.  A.,  book  by  .........  121 

Goodrich,  quoted  ....................  390 

Gooseberries,  mentioned.  .  .387,  450,  461 
Gooseberry,  sketch  of  ...............  389 

Gould,  Dr  ..........................  420 

Grant,  C.  W.,  book  by  ..............  121 

Grapes,  amelioration  .......  449.  454,  458 

—  species  of  .........................  98 

Gray's  Synoptical  Flora  ............  98 

Green,  Chas.  A  ......................  348 

-  Professor  ................  239,  240,  243 

Grein,  Mr  ...........................  79 

Grindon,  quoted  .....................  298 

Hadley,  on  persimmon  ..............  433 

Hale,  Edward  Everett,  quoted  ......    2 

—  Elisha  .............  ...............  180 

Hall,  mentioned  ....................  207 

Haraszthy,  A  ,  book  by  .............  121 

Hare,  Thomas  ......................  180 

Harris,  J.  S  ............  205,  270,  341,  343 

Hartley,  Thos  .......................  60 

Hartlib,  Samuel  ....................  130 

Harvey,  James  ......................  176 

Haskell,  George  .....................  70 

—  -book  by  ...................  121,122 

Hastings,  Wm  ......................  68 

Hawkins,  John  .....................     3 

Haws,  mentioned  ...................  170 

Hazelrigg,  Wm  ......................  27 

Hazels  ..............................  445 

Heideman,  C.  W.  H  ................  244 

Heikes,  W.  F  .......................  177 

Heinrichs,  Mr  .......................  78 

Heller,  A  ............................  431 

Henry,  Mrs.  J.  W  ..................  60 

Herbemont  grape  ...................  77 


PAGE 

Herbemont,  Nicholas 16,  67,  78 

Hermann,  Mo 69,  87 

Hickories 445,461 

Hicks  mulberry 165 

Higginson,  Francis,  quoted  .  .2, 162, 170 

High-bush  blackberry 305,  379 

Hill,  E.  J 117 

Hoare,  C.,  book  by 122 

Hofer,  A.  F.,  book  by 122 

Hogg,  Robert 278,298 

Holcomb,  E.  A 302 

Homergue,  John 146, 156 

Hooper,  E.  J 63,  65 

Horticola 122 

Hortulana  plums 194 

(See,  also,  Prunus  hortulana. ) 

Houghton,  Abel 390,  392 

Hovey.C.  M 168 

Howarth,  Mr 278 

Huckleberries,  mentioned 170,  387, 

388,  416,  451 

Hudson  river,  grapes  on 68 

Huguenots 13 

Hurtleberries 387 

Husmann,  Geo 69,78,80 

books  by 122 

Hybrid  apples 266,  272 

-  blackberries 315,  317,  321,  326, 

377,  381 

—  cherry 

—  raspberries 

Hybrids  in  grapes. 
Indiana,  grapes  in . 

Isabella  grape 

Ives,  John  M 

Jackson,  General  . . 
Jaeger,  Hermann  . . 


244 

70 

34 

66,455 

301 

175 

...  70 


Japanese  persimmon 437,  438,  441 

-ph 


m  . 


James  I.  and  silk-raising 128,  133 

Jefferson 23 

Jepson,  W.  L Ill 

Jermy,  G 26V 

Johnson,  J .  E 245 

-S.  W....  ...  18 


-  mulberry 164 

Jones,  Hist,  of  Georgia.  .14, 135, 136, 138 

Joslyn,  Leander 282 

Josselyn,  John 174 


INDEX 


467 


PAGE 

Julien.  Stanislas,  book  by 157 

Juneberry 404,  4.VJ,  4til 

Kaki 437,  438,  441 

Kalm,  Peter 163,  323 

Kaskaskia 3,    23 

Keffer,  Chas.  A 239 

Kehr,  Mr 78 

Kenrick,  William 148,  157, 

301.  368,  390 

Kentucky, .grapes  in 22  et  seq. 

Kern.G.M 65 

Kerr,  J.  W 202,  213,  215,  222 

Keuka  Lake 67 

Kirtland,  Professor 164 

Klein  &  Co 237 

Knesheneka 388 

Kniffin,  Wm 68 

Knudson,  H .....231,  244 

Knudsen,  Mr 95 

Kofoid,  Chas.  A 323,  324 

Kunth,  quoted 166 

Labrador,  berries  in 387 

Leestadia  Bidwellii 88 

Lambrigger,  Messrs 406 

Lampasas  mulberry 166 

Langendoerfer,  Mr 79 

Lardner,  Dionysius,  book  by 157 

Laspeyre,  Bernard 66 

Legauz,  Peter 19,  25,  42,  44,  48 

Leif .  son  of  Eric 2 

Lemmon,  J.  G 216 

Lemosq,  F.  A 78 

Lilly,  A.  T 153 

Lindheimer 207 

Lindley.  N.  H 169 

Link,  herbarium  of 367 

Linnams,  on  nibus 323,  366,  367 

Lodeman,  on  grape  fungi 90 

Logan,  J.H 358 

Logan-berry 357 

Loiseleur-Deslongchamps 210 

Lombe,  Sir  Thomas 136 

London  Company 10,  11,  127,  133 

Longworth,  N. .  .20,  47,  54,  61,  62,  65,  67, 
78, 79, 96.  276, 278, 279,  286,  295.  443 

book  by 123 

Lord,  O.  M 179,  180 

Loubat,  Alphonse 20,  94.  96 

book  by 123 


PAGE 

Lovett,  Josiah 299,380 

-J.T 328,406 

Lucretia  dewberry 332,  346, 373 

Lucretia's  Sister  dewberry 344 

Lukens,  General 60 

Lyon,  T.  T 349 

Maclay,  Wm 60 

Macoun.  J.  M 364 

Maine,  grapes  in 13 

Makepeace,  A.  D 417,  420,  421,  423 

Malus  angustifolia 256 

—  coronaria 256 

—  sempervirens 255 

Mammoth  dewberry 348 

Mann,  herbarium  of 267 

Manning,  quoted 390 

Marianna  plum 208 

Markley.E 181 

Marmalade 174 

Marshall,  Humphrey..  182,  185, 191.  195 

Marsh  berries 387 

Mason,  S.  C 221 

Massachusetts  Company 12 

Mathews,  B.  A 270,396 

Maurick,  Samuel 49.  50 

Mayes  dewberry 344 

-John 344 

Maynard  dewberry 346,  347 

McMahon 25.42,274 

McMinn.J.  M 123 

McMurtrie,  Wm.,  book  by 123 

McQuery,  George 31 

Mead,  P.  B.,  book  by 123 

Mererod  family 27,  38 

Michaux,  on  prunus 193 

—  quoted 28,  159,  102. 

256,  284,  367,  412,  4» 

Mifflin,  Governor 61 

Mildew 88,  90 

Millardet 90,  96 

Miller,  Anthony 95 

-Phillip 412 

Millspaugh,  C.  F 822 

Miner.Mr 142 

—  on  dewberries :ctt 

—  on  plums 175 


Missouri  currant 401 

—  grapes  In 69,  87 

Mitzky,  book  by 123 


468 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Mohr,  F.,  book  by 123 

Molka  berry .389 

Mouilia  fructigena .'223 

Moore,  Jacob 70,71,455 

Morin,  M.,  book  by 157 

Morong  berry 388 

Morton,  Thomas,  quoted 2, 170 

Morus  alba 161,  167,  168. 169 

—  celtidifolia 166 

-  Japonica 169 

-  multicaulis 148, 149, 150, 153,  168 

-nigra ...161,167 

-rubra 160,161,164 

—  Tatarica 161 

—  tomentosa 166 

Mosher,  S 65 

Mottier,  Mr 65 

Mueneh,  F.,  book  by 123 

Mulberries,  history  of 127  et  seq. 

—  mentioned 450,461 

Mulberry  trees  mentioned 4, 170 

—  varieties  of 164,  165, 166, 168, 169 

Multicaulis  craze 141  et  seq. 

Munson,  T.  V 70,  71,  81,  83,  85,  114, 

117, 166,  206,  207 

book  by 123 

Muscadine  grape 83,98 

Myrobalan  plum 209 

Nantes,  edict  of 13 

Never  Fail  dewberry 348 

New  England,  grapes  in 2 

New  Jersey,  grapes  in 16 

New  York,  grapes  in 16,  67,  87 

Nicholls,  Governor 16 

Nicholson,  Professor 60 

Nicollet's  expedition 238 

Northmen 3 

Norton,  D.  N 78 

Norton's  Virginia 69,  78,  455 

Noyes,  Professor 77 

Nut-fruits 445,451 

Nut-pine 445 

Nuttall's  herbarium 43 

Oglethorpe  and  silk 136 

Ohio,  grapes 24 

Onderdonk,  George 177 

Oregon  crab 249 

Oregon  Everbearing  blackberry.... 360 
Otis  Ashmore 135 


PAGE 

Pale,  Tenis 5 

Parker,  E.  and  C 124 

Parmentier,  Mr 94 

Parry,  C.  C 238 

—  William 301,  314 

Pascalis,  Felix 150, 157 

Patten,  C.  G 272 

Pawpaw 443,444 

Pear-berries ..387 

Pecan 445,461 

Peck,  C.  H 288,295,360 

Peel,  painting  by 61 

Penn,  Governor 43 

—  William 16 

Pennock,  Chas.  E 237,241 

Pepys,  quoted 6 

Peronospora  viticola 88 

Perrottet 148 

Persia,  mulberries  in 128 

Persimmon,  sketch  of 433 

Persimmons,  mentioned 172 

Persoz,  book  by 124 

Phelps,  R.  H.,  book  by 124 

Philippines 129 

Phin,  Jno.,  books  by 124 

Phylloxera 89,  91 

Pickering,  Colonel 61 

Picket,  Heathcoat 36 

Pickett,  J.  Q 343 


—  Mr 176 

Pine,  nut 445 

Place,  J.  A 75 

Planchon 90 

—  quoted 103 

Plantagenet,  Beauchamp 4 

Plums,  mentioned 170,  171,  452,  461 

—  sketch  of 170  et  seq. 

Poeschfil,  Mr 79 

Poetry,  on  silk- worm 132 

Pomegranates 13 

Pond  apple 441.442 

Porter,  Professor 226,  311,  370,  430 

Potatoes 13 

Potlatch 389 

Powell,  E.P 77 

Prentiss,  A.  N.,  book  by 124 

Priestly.  Dr.  Jos 60 

Prillieux 91 

Prince,  William 163,301 


INDEX 


469 


PAGE 
Prince,  Wm.  R.  .66,  80,  274,  275,  276,  429 

—  book  by 124 

Provost,  Paul  H 71 

Prunus  Alleghaniensis 226 

—  Americana 173,  182,  183,  184,  185, 

186,  187,  188,  189,  190,  191,  198. 
199,  204,  205,  207,  224,  225,  243,  244 

—  angustifolia 191, 193,  198, 

201,  204,  205,  220 

—  australis 189 

—  Besseyi 221,  235,  236,  237,  241, 

243,  244,  246 

—  cerasifera 210,  211,  213 

—  Chamsecerasus 235 

—  Chicasa 193 

—  demissa 231 

-  domestica 210,  211,  215 

—  glandulosa 207 

—  gracilis 221 

—  Gravesii 214 

—  hortulana 193,  195,  196, 197,  198, 

199,  201,  203,  204,  208,  244 

—  injucunda 225 

—  maritima 193,  211,  214 

—  Mississippi 195 

—  myrobalana 210 

—  nigra 184,  185,  186,  187,  188,  189 

-Padus 227,228 

—  Pennsylvanica 233 

—  Pissardi 211,  213 

-  pumila 234,  235.  237,  238 

—  rivularis 207,  208,  223 

—  serotina 230,  232 

—  sphserocarpa 193 

—  stenophyllus 193 

—  subcordata 215,216 

-Texana 184,224 

—  umbellata 209,  224,  225 

-Utahensis 244 

—  Virginiana 227,  228.  231 

—  Watsoni 218,  220.  221.  222, 

223,  224,  244 

Pullein,  Samuel 140 

Purcell.J.  B 64,278 

Purdy 's  «  Fruit  Recorder  " 164, 


Purry,  Jeun  Pierre 8 

Pursh,  Frederick 142.  413 

Pyrus  baecata 272 


PAOK 

Pyrus  angustifolia 251,  252, 

255,  256.  259 

—  coronaria.  .251,  252,  253,  254,  255  256, 

257,  258,  259,  265,  266,  267,  272 

—  loensis 256,  258,  259,  260,  261, 

266.  268,  272 

—  Malus 268,272 

—  pmnifolia 272 

—  rivularis 250 

—  Soulardi 266,  268,  269,  272 

Quinces 174 

Rafinesque,  book  by 125 

—  on  rubus 367 

—  quoted 48,52,86 

Ragland,  A.  M 344 

Raleigh,  Sir  Walter 83 

Ramsey,  F.  M 166 

—  F.  T 222,223 

Rand,  E.  L 363 

-&Redfleld 363 

Rand's  blackberry 363.  385 

Raspberries,  mentioned 170,  387, 

389,  450,  461 

Raspberry,  Everbearing 279 

Raspberry  history 274 

Rathbuu,  Alvin  F 321 

Raymond,  H.  C 180 

Ravaz  and  Viala 90 

Reasoner  Bros 352 

Reemelin,  Chas 65 

book  by 125 

Rehfuss,  L 65 

Ribes  Americanum 401 

—  aureum....  401 


-Cynosbati 396 

-Grossularia 394,396 

—  laxiflorum 388 

—  nigrum 399 

—  oxyacanthoides 394,  396 

—  rubrum 388,  399 

—  sanguineum 401 

Ricard,  Mr 90 

Rice,  J.  B 177 

Richards.  Paul 16 

Richards,  book  by 414 

Ricketts,  J.H 70 

Rittenhouse,  Benj 61 

Robbins,  J.W 313 

Roberts,  Edward  P..  book  by 168 


470 


INDEX 


PAGE 
Robinson,  J.  H 177 

—  Pickering 138 

Rogers,  E.  S 70 

Rommel,  Jacob 69,  79 

Root-house 89 

Rose,  Simri 165 

Rubus  Allegheniensis 312,  370,  381 

-  Americanus 275,288 

—  angulatus 367 

—  arcticus 365 

-  argutus 311,  367,  368,  370,  377 

description  of 381 

-  Baileyanus 331,  352,  308,  371,  375 

—  ciesius 368 

-  Canadensis 276,  323,  339,  340, 

341.  342,  366,  367,  368.  370,  371,  374 
description  of 385 

—  Chamjemorus 364,  365,  387.  389 

—  cuneifolius 325,  326 

description  of 378 

-  Enslenii 332,  352.  353.  368,  371 

description  of 375,  376 

—  flagellaris 368,369 

-  floridus 368,370,382,385 

-frondosus 367,370,381 

-fruticosus 298,360 

-  heterophyllus 371 

-  hispidus 339,  340,  360, 362,  363 

description  of 377 

-  humifusns 332,  352,  353,  371,  375 

-  Idams.  .274,  283,  287,  288,  293.  294,  357 
-inermis 367 

—  invisus 346,348,371,375 

description  of 374 

—  laciniatus 360 

—  leucodermis 289 

—  macropetalus 354 

-  Millspaughii 323.  367,  370, 385 

—  nioii  t  mm  s 38 1 

-  neglectus 288,  289,  291,  294,  295 

-  nigrobaccus 306,  370,  381.  385 

description  of 379 

—  nitidus  367 

—  Nutkanus 297 

-  occidental 287,  288,  289 

—  odoratus 297 

—  parviflorus 389 

—  Pennsylvanicus 276,  288 

-  proonmbens 368 


PAGE 

Rubus  setosus 360,  361,  362 

description  of 377 

—  spectabilis 388 


—  stellatus 

—  strigosus 288,  289,  291, 

292,  293,  294,  389 

—  suberectns 368,  370,  381 

—  trivialis 339,  340,  345,  352,  368,  373 

description  of 376 

-ulmifolius 367 

—  ursinus 353,354,  359 

-  villosus. . .  .306,  311,  312,  339,  340,  341, 

342,  344.  346,  347,  348,  350,  351,  352, 

363,  366,  307,  370,  371,  376,  379,  381,  385 

description  of 371 

-  vitifolius 352,  354,  355,  356,  360 

Rush.Benj 60 

-Richard 143,157 

Salal  berries 389 

Salmon-berry 297,  388 

Sambucus  Canadensis 411 

—  racemosa 389 

Sand  blackberry 325,378 

—  cherry 234 

—  plum 218 

Sargent,  C.  S 166,  184,  186,  199,  218- 

220,  221,  224,  226,  250,  259,  447 

Saunders,  Wm.,  book  by 125 

Sayers,  Edward 65 

Scheele,  quoted 207, 223,  224 

Scholl,  Mrs 53,  55 

Scuppernong 83,  85,  99 

Seacor,  Lewis  A 302 

Seals  of  Georgia 135 

Sharp,  Elder 154 

Shellbarks....  ....445 


Shepherdia  argentea 406 

Shinn.  C.  H 291,  297,  354,  357 

Sias,  A.  W 343 

Siebenthal  family 27 

Siedhof.  Chas 125 

Silk-growing 127  et  seq. 

Silk-worms 127,  130,  141 

Simmon  beer 437,  438 

Sisson,  plum  of 216 

Small,  John  K 214,225 

Small  nuts,  mentioned 170 

Smith.  Gideon  B 150 

-JohnB....  ....414 


INDEX 


471 


PAGE 
Smith,  John,  quoted.  .4, 163, 172, 173,  249 

-John  Jay 284 

Snow,  Geo.  C 68 

Salzburgers 137 

Soulard.  James  G 175,  201.  270 

Soulard  crab 261 

Southampton.  Earl  of 10. 128 

South  Carolina,  grapes  in 8,  13,  16 

Species  of  grapes 98 

Speer,  R.  P 410 

Spooner,  A.,  book  by 125 

—  quoted 26,  66,  94 

Squash-berries 387 

Stark  Bros 177 

Stebbins,  Dr 151 

Stephen,  Peter 156 

Stephens,  Wm.,  quoted 14 

Sterling,  John 321 

Stevens,  Wm.  Bacon 14, 134 

Stiles,  Rev 140 

Stone.  G.  E 424 

—  I.  N 337,338,350 

Strachey,  William 162,  172,  249 

Strauch,  Adolph 65 

Strawberries,  mentioned.  ..386,  389,  450 

(See,  also,  Fragaria.) 

Strawberry,  sketch  of 424 

Stroebel,  P.  A 137 

Strong,  W.  C 75 

—  W.  C.,  book  by 125 

Stubbs.  JohnM 165 

—  mulberry  165 

Swett,  Frank  T 453 

Synopsis  of  vitis 98 

Tawnkong  plum 207,  223 

Tea-berries 387 

Teas,  E.  Y 335 

Terminalia 209 

Thayer,  Eliphalet 300,  302 

Thimble-berry 289,  389 

Thorn-apples 443 

mentioned 170 

Thornless  blackberry 322,  385 

Thurber,  Professor 238 

Tobacco,  and  silk 134 

T -mes,  Robert,  book  by 125 

Tori  ey  &  Gray 211,  255,  360 

—  quoted 352 

Tournefort,  quoted 210 


PAOC 

Tracy,  S,  M 238 

Trasker's  grape 43 

Trattinnick 368 

Treackleberries 387 

Treedway,  J.  B 344 

Troop,  on  persimmon 433 

Tryon,  J.  H.,  book  by 125 

Tyrker 2 

Uber,  C.  A 352 

Utah  hybrid  cherry 221,  244 

Uvedale 4 

Vaccinium  macrocarpon 414,  424 

—  ovalif  olium 389 

—  Oxy  coccus 389 

—  parviflorum 389 

—  uliginosum  388 

—  Vitis-Idaea 388.  424 

VanBuren.  J 85 

VanDeman,  H.  E 404 

Van  Dusen,  Hiram 281 

Vernon,  Wm.  H.,  book  by 158 

Vevay 34 

Viala  and  Ravaz 90 

Viburnum  Americanum 412 

—  edule 413 

—  Opulus 412 

—  Oxycoccos 413 

—  paucinorum 388 

Vick's  Sons 021 

Virginia,  grapes  in 4,  6,  11 

—  mulberries  in 128.  129 

-plums  in 174 

Vitis  asstivalis 81,  82,  83,  86,  98,  112 

—  Arizonica 109 

-  Baileyana 107 

—  Berlandieri 101.  105.  108,  459 

—  bicolor...  114 


Bourquiniaua 81,  83,  114 

California 110,  111 

campestris 8 

•  candicans  ... 115 


Caribssa 109,  1 15 

Champini 105,106.460 

cinerea 43,  198 

•  cordifolia 92,  103, 108 

•coriacea H« 

Doanlana 112 

Girdiana Ill 

Linsecomii 113,  459.  4«0 


472 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Vitis  Labrusca  . .  .5,  6,  43,  55,  57,  66,  75, 
83,  86,  98,  102,  116 

—  Longii 104 

—  monticola 101 

—  Munsoniana 99 

—  Nuevo-Mexicana 104 

—  palmata 105 

-  riparia 69,  75,  76,  92,  101,  102 

—  rotundifolia 83,  84,  86,  98,  99 

—  rupestris 100 

—  Simpsoni 116 

—  Solonis 104 

—  sylvestris 47 

—  Treleasei 103 

—  vinifera 9,  47,  83,  89,  90,  98 

—  vulpina 69,  75,  76,  86,  92,  101 

—  species  of 98 

Wait,  F.  E. ,  book  by 125 

Walnuts,  mentioned 170,  445,  461 

Warder,  John  A 65 

book'by 126 

Washington  thorn 445,  446 

Watson,  Sereno 211,  227 

Waugh,  F.  A. . .  189,  203, 205,  220,  226,  227 

Wayland,  H.  B 177 

Weaver,  Mr 181 

Webb,  book  by 414 

Weller,  Sidney 85 

Werk,  Mr 65 

Worden  grape 75,455 

—  Schuyler 74,  75 

White,  Hugh 75 


PAGE 

White,  book  by  414 

Whitmarsh,  Dr 151,  158 

Whortleberries 170,  387,  388,  4 16 

Wickson,  quoted 167,  217,  23] , 

250,  291,  297,  356 

Wilder,  Marshall  P 300 

Wiedersprecker,  Mr 78 

Wier,  D.  B 175,  264 

Willdenow,  on  pyrus 272 

—  on  rubus 367,368 

Willams,  Edward 128, 129 

Williams  James  S 314 

—  Roger 426 

—  on  dewberry  ...  332 


Williamson,  John 65 

Wilson,  John 314 

—  Samuel 352,  354 

Windom  dewberry 341 

Wine  berries 389 

Winslow,  Edward,  quoted 2, 170, 171 

Winsor,  Justin,  quoted 2,  128 

Wintergreen 387 

Winthrop,  Governor 3,  12 

Wolf.D.B 179 

—  collections  of 207 

Wood,  A.,  cited 256,259 

—  William 171,  386,  426 

Woodward,  book  by 126 

Wright,  F.  L 344,  348 

Wylie,  Dr.  Peter 85 

Yeatman,  T.  H 65 

Young,  Alexander 171 


THE   RURAL  SCIENCE   SERIES 

Includes  books  which  state  the  underlying  principles 
of  agriculture  in  plain  language.  They  are  suitable 
for  consultation  alike  by  the  amateur  or  professional 
tiller  of  the  soil,  the  scientist  or  the  student,  and  are 
freely  illustrated  and  finely  made. 

The  following  volumes  are  now  ready: 

THE  SOIL.  By  P.  H.  KINO,  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin.  303pp.  4f 
illustrations. 

THE  FERTILITY  OF  THE  LAND.  By  I.  P.  POBERTS,  of  Cornell  Univer- 
sity. 421  pp.  45  illustrations. 

THE  SPRAYING  OF  PLANTS.  By  E.  G.  LODEMAN,  late  of  Cornell  Uni- 
versity. 399  pp.  92  illustrations. 

MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS.  By  H.  H.  WING,  of  Cornell  University. 
311  pp.  43  illustrations. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  FRUIT-GROWING.  By  L.  H.  BAILEY.  516  pp. 
120  illustrations 

BUSH-FRUITS.  By  P.  W.  CARD,  of  Rhode  Island  College  of  Agriculture 
and  Mechanic  Arts.  537  pp.  113  illustrations. 

FERTILIZERS.  By  E.  B.  VOORHEES,  of  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station. 
332  pp. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE.    By  L.  H.  BAILED    300  pp.    92 

IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE.    By  P.  H.  KING,  University  of  Wisconsin. 

502  pp.     163  illustrations. 

THE  FARMSTEAD.    By  I.  P.  ROBERTS.    350  pp.    138  illustrations. 
RURAL  WEALTH  AND  WELFARE.    By  GEORGE  T.  FAIRCHILD,  Ex-Presi- 

dent  of  the  Agricultural  College  of  Kansas.    381  pp.    14  charts. 
THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  VEGETABLE-GARDENING.    By  L.  H.  BAILEY. 

468  pp.     144  illustrations. 
THE  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS.    By  W.  H.  JORDAN,  of  New  York   State 

Experiment  Station.    450  pp. 
FARM  POULTRY.    By  GEORGE  C.  WATSON,  of  Pennsylvania  State  College. 

341pp. 
THE  FARMER'S  BUSINESS  HANDBOOK.    By  I.  P.  ROBERTS,  of  Cornell 

University.    300  pp. 
THE   CARE   OF  'ANIMALS.     By  NELSON  S.  MAYO,  of  Kansas  State  Agri- 

cultural  College.     458  pp. 
THE  HORSE.    By  I.  P.  ROBERTS,  of  Cornell  University.    413  pp. 

New  volumes  will  be  added  from  time  to  time  to 
the  RURAL  SCIENCE  SERIES.  The  following  are  in 
preparation: 

PHYSIOLOGY  OP  PLANTS.    By  .T.  C.  ARTHUR,  Purdue  University. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK  BREEDING.    By  W.  H.  BRKWIR.  of  Yal« 

University. 
PLANT  PATHOLOGY.    By  B.  T.  GALLOWAY  and  associates,  of  U.  S.  Depart 

ment  of  Agriculture. 
THE  POME  FRUITS  (Apples.  Pears.  Quinces).    By  L.  H.  BAILEY. 


THE  GARDEN-CRAFT  SERIES 

Comprises  practical  handbooks  for  the  horticultur- 
ist, explaining  and  illustrating  in  detail  the  various 
important  methods  which  experience  has  demon- 
strated to  be  the  most  satisfactory.  They  may  be 
called  manuals  of  practice,  and  though  all  are  pre- 
pared by  Professor  BAILEY,  of  Cornell  University, 
they  include  the  opinions  and  methods  of  success- 
ful specialists  in  many  lines,  thus  combining  the 
results  of  the  observations  and  experiences  of  nu- 
merous students  in  this  and  other  lands.  They  are 
written  in  the  clear,  strong,  concise  English  and  in 
the  entertaining  style  which  characterize  the  author. 
The  volumes  are  compact,  uniform  in  style,  clearly 
printed,  and  illustrated  as  the  subject  demands. 
They  are  of  convenient  shape  for  the  pocket,  and 
are  substantially  bound  in  flexible  green  cloth. 

THB  HORTICULTURIST'S  RULE  BOOK.     By  L.  H.  BAILEY.    812  pp. 
THE  NURSERY-BOOK.     By  L.  H.  BAILEY.    365  pp.    152  illustrations. 
PLANT-BREEDING.     By  L.  H.  BAILEY.    293  pp.    20  illustrations. 
THE  FORCING-BOOK.     By  L.  H.  BAILEY.     266  pp.    88  illustrations. 
GARDEN-MAKING.     By  L.  H.  BAILEY.    417  pp.    256  illustrations. 
THE  PRUNING-BOOK.    By  L.  H.  BAILKY.   545  pp.   331  illustrations. 

THE  PRACTICAL  GARDEN-BOOK.    By  C.  E.  HUNK  and  L.  H.  BAILBY. 
250  pp.     Many  marginal  cuts. 


T 


HE  SURVIVAL  OF  THE  UNLIKE: 

A  Collection  of  Evolution  Essays  Suggested 
by  the  Study  of  Domestic  Plants.  By  L.  H. 
BAILEY,  Professor  of  Horticulture  in  the  Cornell 
University. 

fOUHTH  EDITION-  Bit    PACES  —  tt    ILLUSTRATIONS  —  tt.OO 

To  those  interested  in  the  underlying  philosophy 
of  plant  life,  this  volume,  written  in  a  most  enter- 
taining style,  and  fully  illustrated,  will  prove  wel- 
come. It  treats  of  the  modification  of  plants  under 
cultivation  upon  the  evolution  theory,  and  its  atti- 
tude on  this  interesting  subject  is  characterized 
by  the  author's  well-known  originality  and  inde- 
pendence of  thought.  Incidentally,  there  is  stated 
much  that  will  be  valuable  and  suggestive  to  the 
working  horticulturist,  as  well  as  to  the  man  or 
woman  impelled  by  a  love  of  nature  to  horticul- 
tural pursuits.  It  may  well  be  called,  indeed,  a 
philosophy  of  horticulture,  in  which  all  interested 
may  find  inspiration  and  instruction. 

THE  SURVIVAL  or  THE  UNLIKE  comprises  thirty  essays  touching 
upon  The  General  Fact  and  Philosophy  of  Evolution  (The  Plant 
Individual,  Experimental  Evolution,  Corey's  Army  and  the  Russian 
Thistle,  Recent  Progress,  etc.);  Expounding  the  Fact  and  Causes  of 
Variation  (The  Supposed  Correlations  of  Quality  in  Fruits,  Natural 
History  of  Synonyms,  Reflective  Impressions,  Relation  of  Seed- 
bearing  to  Cultivation,  Variation  after  Birth,  Relation  between 
American  and  Eastern  Asian  Fruits,  Horticultural  Geography,  Prob- 
lems of  Climate  and  Plants,  American  Fruits,  Acclimatization,  Sex 
in  Fruits,  Novelties,  Promising  Varieties,  etc.);  ar.d  Tracing  the 
Evolution  of  Particular  Types  of  Plants  (the  Cultivated  Strawberry, 
Battle  of  the  Plums,  Grapes,  Progress  of  the  Carnation.  Petunia, 
Tne  Garden  Tomato,  etc.;. 


WORKS    BY   PROFESSOR     BAILEY 


THE  EVOLUTION  OF  OUR  NA* 
TIVE  FRUITS.  By  L.  H.  BAILEY,  Pro- 
fessor  of  Horticulture  in  the  Cornell  University. 

472    PACES  -125    ILLUSTRATIONS— S2.OO 

In  this  entertaining  volume,  the  origin  and  de- 
velopment of  the  fruits  peculiar  to  North  America 
are  inquired  into,  and  the  personality  of  those  horti- 
cultural pioneers  whose  almost  forgotten  labors 
have  given  us  our  most  valuable  fruits  is  touched 
upon.  There  has  been  careful  research  into  the 
history  of  the  various  fruits,  including  inspection 
of  the  records  of  the  great  European  botanists  who 
have  given  attention  to  American  economic  botany. 
The  conclusions  reached,  the  information  presented, 
and  the  suggestions  as  to  future  developments,  can- 
not but  be  valuable  to  any  thoughtful  fruit-grower, 
while  the  terse  style  of  the  author  is  at  its  best  in 
his  treatment  of  the  subject. 

THE  EVOLUTION  OF  OUR  NATIVE  FRUITS  discusses  The  Rise  of 
the  American  Grape  (North  America  a  Natural  Vineland,  Attempts 
to  Cultivate  the  European  Grape,  The  Experiments  of  the  Dufours, 
The  Branch  of  Promise,  John  Adlum  and  the  Catawba,  Rise  of 
Commercial  Viticulture,  Why  Did  the  Early  Vine  Experiments  Fail  ? 
Synopsis  of  the  American  Grapes) ;  The  Strange  History  of  the  Mul- 
berries (The  Early  Silk  Industry,  The  "Multicaulis  Craze,") ;  Evolu- 
tion of  American  Plums  and  Cherries  (Native  Plums  in  General, 
The  Chickasaw,  Hortulana,  •  Marianna  and  Beach  Plum  Groups, 
Pacific  Coast  Plum,  Various  Other  Types  of  Plums,  Natvve  Cherries, 
Dwarf  Cherry  Group);  Native  Apples  (Indigenous  Species,  Amelio- 
ration has  begun);  Origin  of  American  Raspberry-growing  (Early 
American  History,  Present  Types,  Outlying  Types) ;  Evolution  of 
Blackberry  and  Dewberry  Culture  (The  High -bush  Blackberry  and 
Its  Kin,  The  Dewberries,  Botanical  Names);  Various  Types  of 
Berry-like  Fruits  (The  Gooseberry,  Native  Currants,  Juneberry, 
Buffalo  Berry,  Elderberry,  High-bush  Cranberry,  Cranberry,  Straw- 
berry); Various  Types  of  Tree  Fruits  (Persimmon,  Custard-Apple 
Tribe,  Thorn-Apples,  Nut -Fruits );  General  Remarks  on  the  Improve- 
ment of  our  Native  Fruits  (What  Has  Been  Done,  What  Probably 
Should  Be  Done). 


WORKS    BY    PROreSSOU    BAILEY 

LESSONS  WITH  PLANTS:  Sugges- 
tions for  Seeing  and  Interpreting  Some  of 
the  Common  Forms  of  Vegetation.  By  L. 

H.  BAILEY,  Professor  of  Horticulture  in  the  Cornell 
University,  with  delineations  from  nature  by  W.  S. 
HOLDSWORTH,  of  the  Agricultural  College  of 
Michigan. 

SECOND  COITION- 481    PACIS-44S  ILLUSTRATION*- IS  MO 

cLOVH  -*1.10  NET 

There  are  two  ways  of  looking  at  nature.  The 
old  way,  which  you  have  found  so  unsatisfactory, 
was  to  classify  everything — to  consider  leaves,  roots, 
and  whole  plants  as  formal  herbarium  specimens, 
forgetting  that  each  had  its  own  story  of  growth 
and  development,  struggle  and  success,  to  tell. 
Nothing  stifles  a  natural  love  for  plants  more  effect- 
ually than  that  old  way. 

The  new  way  is  to  watch  the  life  of  every  grow- 
ing thing,  to  look  upon  each  plant  as  a  living 
creature,  whose  life  is  a  story  as  fascinating  as  the 
story  of  any  favorite  hero.  "Lessons  with  Plants" 
is  a  book  of  stories,  or  rather,  a  book  of  plays,  for 
we  can  see  each  chapter  acted  out  if  we  take  the 
trouble  to  look  at  the  actors. 

"  I  have  spent  some  time  in  most  delightful  examination  of  it,  and  the* 
longer  I  look,  the  better  I  like  it.  I  find  it  not  only  full  of  interest,  but 
eminently  suggestive.  I  know  of  no  book  which  begins  to  do  so  much  to 
open  the  eyes  of  the  student  —whether  pupil  or  teacher  —  to  the  wealth  of 
meaning  contained  in  simple  plant  forms.  Above  all  else,  it  seems  to  be 
full  of  suggestions  that  help  one  to  learn  the  language  of  plants,  so  they 
may  talk  to  him."—  DAKWIN  L.  BABDWELL,  Superintendent  of  School*,  Sing- 
hamton. 

"It  is  an  admirable  book,  and  cannot  fail  both  to  awaken  interest  in 
the  subject,  and  to  serve  as  a  helpful  and  reliable  guide  to  young  students 
of  plant  life.  It  will,  I  think,  fill  an  important  place  in  secondary  schools, 
and  comes  at  an  opportune  time,  when  helps  of  this  kind  are  needed  and 
eagerly  sought."— Professor  V.  M.  SPALDINU,  Univertity  of  Michigan. 

FIRST    LESSONS   WITH    PLANTS 

An  Abridgement  of  the  aboye.  117  pages — 116  illustra- 
tions— 40  cents  net 


B 


WORKS   BY   PROFESSOR   BAILEY 

OTANY :  An  Elementary  Text  for  Schools. 

By  L.  H.  BAILEY. 

355    PACCS-600    ILLUSTRATIONS-* 1.  1O    NET 


"This  book  is  made  for  the  pupil:  'Lessons  With  Plants' 
was  made  to  supplement  the  work  of  the  teacher."  This  is  tha 
opening  sentence  of  the  preface,  showing  that  the  book  is  a 
companion  to  "Lessons  With  Plants,"  which  has  now  become  a 
standard  teacher's  book.  The  present  book  is  the  handsomest 
elementary  botanical  text-book  yet  made.  The  illustration? 
illustrate.  They  are  artistic.  The  old  formal  and  unnatural 
Botany  is  being  rapidly  outgrown.  The  book  disparages  mere 
laboratory  work  of  the  old  kind:  the  pupil  is  taught  to  see  things 
as  they  grow  and  behave.  The  pupil  who  goes  through  this  book 
will  understand  the  meaning  of  the  plants  which  he  sees  day 
by  day.  It  is  a  revolt  from  the  dry-as-dust  teaching  of  botany 
tt  cares  little  for  science  for  science'  sake,  but  its  point  of  view 
is  nature -study  in  its  best  sense.  The  book  is  divided  into  four 
parts,  any  or  all  of  which  may  be  used  in  the  school:  the  plnnt 
itself;  the  plant  in  its  environment;  histology,  or  the  minute 
structure  of  plants;  the  kinds  of  plants  (with  a  key,  and  de- 
scriptions of  300  common  species).  The  introduction  contains 
ndvic*-  to  teachers.  The  boot  is  brand  new  from  start  to 
finish. 

"An  exceedingly  attractive  text-book." — Educational  Rev\*v>. 
"It  is  a  school  book  of  the  modern  methods." — The  Dial. 

olduai  use  "—The  Outlook. 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

64-86  Fifth  Avenue  NEW   YORK 


WORKS    BY    PROFESSOR    BAILEY 


THE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  AMERICAN 
HORTICULTURE:   By  L.  H.  BAILEY,  of 

Cornell  University,  assisted  by  WILHELM  MILLER, 
and  many  expert  cultivators  and  botanists. 

4VOLS.-OVER    2800     ORIGINAL   ENGRAVINGS  -  CLOTH  —  OCTAVO 
•  tO. 00    NET    PER    SET.      HALF    MOROCCO,   S32.OO   NET    PER    SET 

This  great  work  comprises  directions  for  the  cul- 
tivation of  horticultural  crops  and  original  descrip- 
tions of  all  the  species  of  fruits,  vegetables  flowers 
and  ornamental  plants  known  to  be  in  the  market  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada.  "It  has  the  unique 
distinction  of  presenting  for  the  first  time,  in  a  c«re- 
fully  arranged  and  perfectly  accessible  form,  the  best 
knowledge  of  the  best  specialists  in  America  upon 
gardening,  fruit-growing,  vegetable  culture,  forestry, 
and  the  like,  as  well  as  exact  botanical  information. 
.  .  .  The  contributors  are  eminent  cultivators  or 
specialists,  and  the  arrangement  is  very  systematic, 
clear  and  convenient  for  ready  reference." 

"We  have  here  a  work  which  every  ambitions  gardener  will  ^rish  to  place 
on  his  shelf  beside  his  Nicholson  and  his  London,  and  for  such  users  of  it  a 
too  advanced  nomenclature  would  have  been  confusing  to  the  last  degree. 
With  the  safe  names  here  given,  there  is  little  liability  to  serious  perplexity. 
There  is  a  growing  impatience  with  much  of  the  controversy  concerning 
revision  of  names  of  organisms,  whether  of  plants  or  animals.  Those  in- 
vestigators who  are  busied  with  the  ecolog'cal  aspects  of  organisms,  and 
also  those  who  are  chiefly  concerned  with  the  application  of  plants  to  the 
arts  of  agriculture,  horticulture,  and  so  on,  care  for  the  names  of  organisms 
under  examination  only  so  far  as  these  aid  in  recognition  and  identification. 
To  introduce  unnecessary  confusion  is  a  serious  blunder  Professor  Bailey 
has  avoided  the  risk  of  confusion.  In  short,  in  range,  treatment  and  edit- 
ing, the  Cyclopedia  appears  to  be  emphatically  useful  :  .  .  .  a  work  worthy 
of  ranking  by  the  side  of  the  Century  Dictionary." — The  tiation. 

This  work  is  sold  only  by  subscription,  and  terms  and 
further  information  may  be  had  of  the  publishers. 


THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

64  66   Fifth  Avenue  NEW    YORK 


VOLUME     I  -READY    SHORTLY 

/CYCLOPEDIA    OF    AMERICAN 
AGRICULTURE.  Edited  by  PROF.  L.  H. 

BAILEY,  of  Cornell  University,  Editor  of  "Cyclope- 
dia of  American  Horticulture";  author  of  "Plant 
Breeding,"  "Principles  of  Agriculture,"  etc. 

WITH     100    FULL-PACE    PLATES    AND    ABOUT     2,000    ILLUSTRATIONS 
IN     THE     TEXT 

TENTATIVE  SYNOPSIS  OP  CONTENTS 
VOLUME  I 

PART  I— GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS— Agricultural  Regions— Farm  Industries 
— Layout  of  a  Farm— Equipment  and  Capital  Required— Farm  Buildings 
Farm  Water  Works— Farm  Machinery— Adornment  of  Farm  Premises— 

PART  II— CLIMATOLOGY— General  Definition  and  Scope — Atmosphere — Tem- 
perature—Pressure— Circulation— Atmospheric  Moistuie— Storms— Pre- 
cipitation—Weather— Climate. 

PART  III— THK  SOIL— General  Considerations— Origin  and  Formation— Kind* 
and  Characteristics— Properties— Germ  Life  in  the  Soil— Moisture— Til- 
lage—Fertilizers— Waste  and  Renovation— Soil  Surveys. 

VOLUME    II -FARM    CROPS 

PART  I— PLANT  PRODUCTION— The  Plant— Environment— Plant  Improvement 
—Farm  Management— Plant  Introduction  -Classifications— Industries 

PART  II—  INDIVIDUAL  FARM  CROPS  (suggested  treatment)—  General— Geo- 
graphical Distribution  and  Extent  — Propagation  and  Cultivation— Varie- 
ties—Harvesting  and  Preservation— Uses  and  Preparation  for  Use  — Man- 
ufacture —  Obstructions  to  Growth  — Marketing  — Exhibiting  — Tools - 
History. 

TIMBER   CROP  (FARM  WOODLOT) 

Introductory— Factors  of  Forest  Production— Methods  of  Forest  Growing- 
Systems  of  Forest  Cropping— Improving  and  Caring  for  Crop— How  to 
Treat  a  Mismanaged  Woodlot— Uses  of  Different  Woods— Home  Utiliza- 
tion of  the  Crop— Measuring  and  Marketing  Forest  Crops. 

VOLUME    III -FARM    STOCK 

PART  I-GENERAL  PRiNciPLES-Introduction-Kinds  of  Animals-Kinds  of 
Animal  Industry— Origin  and  Breeding  of  Domestic  Animals— Physiol- 
ogy— Feeding-Hygiene,  Sanitation  and  Management. 

PART  II- OUTLINE  FOR  TREATMENT  OF  DIFFERENT  KINDH  OF  ANIMALS— 
General  Introductory  Discussion— Distribution  and  Extent— Classifica- 
tion of  Breeds  and  Types-!>eeding-Feeding  and  Feeds- Management 
and  Hygiene— Products— Diseases  and  Disabilities-Judging  and  Scoring 
-Marketing- Exhibiting-History. 

PART  III— ANIMAL  INDUSTRIES  OR  TECHNOLOGY—  Dairying—  Dressing  and 
Curing  of  Meats-Storage-Refrigeration-Fertilizer  Manufacture. 

VOLUME    IV 

THE  FARM  AND  THE  COMMUNITY  (Economics,  Social  Questions,  Organiza- 
tions, History,  Literature,  etc). 

Full  prospectus,  with  sample  pages,  sent  free  on  application 

THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

64-66    Fifth  Avenue  .  .  -  NEW    YORK 


DATE  DUE 


JPK 


DEMCO   38-297 


SB123 
BlU 
1906 
c.2 


Bailey,  Liberty  Hyde 

Sketch  of  the  evolution 
of  our  native  fruits. 


000693171  1 


BIO-AGRICULTURAL  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
RIVERSIDE,  CALIFORNIA  92502 


